Topic 3: Control and consent

Question 1

Education and youth

Answer 1

policy aimed to build a secure foundation for the new state.

Schools, universities and youth movements would be used to achieve this.

Aimed to mould the characteristics of children to create perfect new fascist men and women.

Not all children and young people became fascists yet some success was still clear. A significant number of adolescents gave mussolini their support during the second half of WWII.

Question 2

Fascism in schools

Answer 2

Portrait of M to hang in every classroom, alongside the king.

Teachers had to refer to M’s genius and heroic qualities.

Wall posters put up emphasising Fascist achievements.

Every school day began with Fascist slogans, such as “mussolini is always right”

Primary school children taught to read using books with Fascist cartoons and quatations from M’s speeches.

Taught unquestioning obedience and the need to obey orders.

1928 onwards- 1 authorised gov textbook in junior schools, coverring all subjects but concentrating on the great achievements of Italian history and literature.

History tb’s that lacked patriotic content were replaced with those that exaggerated achievements and foccused on periods of greatness (Roman Empire, Renaissance, unification, rise of fascism). 101/317 tbs banned as a result.

Question 3

What happened to teachers?

Answer 3

dismissed from their posts, 1931 onwards those who remained forced to take an oath of loyalty to the regime.

Most took the oath, some encouraged to on the grounds it was a simple formality.

1931- Teachers assosiations all merged into one Fascist org

1933- PNF membership required

Question 4

How successful was indoctrination?

Answer 4

Hard to judge.

Not all parents were fascists so children could receive different messages at home from those given at school. Teachers, although forced into loyalty, showed varying degrees of enthusiasm for the ideas and subjects they were asked to deliver.

Many teachers opposed to F hid their convictions to keep their jobs, yet students likely saw a lack of enthusiasm.

Hard to tell if children accepted the exact message the state intended for them.

Question 5

Issues in universities

Answer 5

The staff, professors and lecturers who taught were harder to dismiss than teachers and harder to threaten into obedience. Many did not want to join the PNF or take the oath of allegiance and had to be coaxed into it as a “formality”.

However few refused 11/1,250. Some were dedicated fascists and agreed to wear a Fascist uniform at public events such as graduation.

Question 5

Fascism in universities:

Answer 5

Less of a priority, assumed uni students would already be indoctrinated from school. (and those who were not would be much harder to win over).

F’s still expected students to join the University Fascist Youth which granted:

Sport facilities
half price entertainment
part exemption from military service
enhanced career prospects

F’s saw uni students as future leadership of the movement. They set up events such as the Littoriali, student games where individuals competed for the title of “lictor” in a range of exams for arts and also discourses on fascist ideology and doctrine. Prize winners would be earmarked for future success within the PNF and other Fascist organisations.

Question 6

Youth movements

Answer 6

Intended to continue indoctrination outside of school.

Set up under umbrella ONB organisation.

1929 ONB brought under the control of the Ministry of National Education.

Children exposed to F propaganda, but also encouraged to take part in a range physical activities.

Emphasis on sport driven by a need to create a biologically fit Italian race, suitable to build a strong nation. Girls given more traditionally feminine activities, such as domestic training in cookery and childcare, so they could be good F wives and mothers.

Members had to swear an oath of loyalty, learn a special balilla creed and wear a uniform. For boys the uniform was a black shirt etc. Members of the org for older boys wore uniform similar to adult Blackshirts. Given miniature rifles and bayonets, and gathered together to sing fascist hymns.

Question 7

Popularity of Youth movements

Answer 7

Not popular, faced opposition from rival orgs led by the Church (Catholic action).

Some suggest older children paid lip service to F rather than being devoted to it.

Yet even children with anti-fascist parents joined as their parents feared for their children’s careers or social integgration if they refused.

Could lose welfare benefits or even fail exams due to lack of ONB membership.

Question 8

OND

Answer 8

Aimed to win the masses over to fascism by becoming involved in their leisure time as well as their working lives.

Aimed to attract ordinary people with a range of subsidised activities that all could participate in and enjoy.

Programmes included:

Provision of libraries
Showing films
Radio sets
Trips, holidays
Theatre group sponsorships
Art exhibitions
Sports facilities
summer camps
clubhouses for communities
welfare for workers
food and clothing to poorer people

Question 9

OND clubhouse

Answer 9

By the mid 1930s nearly every town had its own clubhouse. Membership rose rapidly (300,000 in 1926 to 2.4 million in 1935). By 1939 4 mill + italians were members of the OND.

Social life focussed on clubhouse and sports ground.

Question 10

Strengths and failures of the OND

Answer 10

Many joined willingly for subsidised entertainment and holidays, but emphasis on physical and mil training not widely embraced.

OND was able to manipulate public opinion and garner further support for the regime because the propaganda message was more subtle and less direct.

Org persuaded the regime mass communication was useful, leading to media becoming a more integral part of propaganda campaigns.

Sport used for propaganda purposes, rose morale and support for belief Italy was making rapid progress.

First time these activities had been encouraged or subsidised by politicians, leading the OND to become one of the most successful policies introduced by the Fascists.

Yet some question the extent to which it actually encouraged active fascism amoung its members.

Question 11

Cinema

Answer 11

Most popular form of entertainment in Italy during the 1930’s.

“Experimental centre of cinematography” built in rome in 1935.

Trained 100 students per year.

Not entirely for Fascist purposes until outbreak of WWII.

Film directors had, in theory, a fair degree of creative freedom, but only if they did not criticise F and the regime, or make serious social or political commentary.

Yet few overtly F films produced before WWII and hollywood or italian movies were played as light entertainment.

Question 12

Increasing state control in cinema

Answer 12

1934- General Directorate for Cinema, created under admin of ministry of press and propaganda (later renamed ministry of popular culture).

Responsible for regulating cinema and bringing film in line with F ideology and aesthetic.

Italy’s Holly wood was taken over by the regime in 1938 and fascist films were made from then on.

Luciano Serra, pilota was made with the help of M’s son, focused on Italian pilot in Abyssinian war.

Escapise glamour rather than F propaganda, yet preceded by newsreels or documentaries made by the regimes film agency, LUCE.

Portrayed current events as F’s wished, glorifying the regime and its successes.

All who went to cinema’s would have to sit through these but their was no guarantee they would listen to or absorb the messages promoted.

Question 13

Radio

Answer 13

Mass media for rural areas and towns.

Did not require literacy and could be received in much more remote areas with government coordination.

Rapid growth in radio popularity (32- 300K radio sets, 38- 1mil+)

During WWII Mussolini expanded radio and more than 2 mill radio sets were installed.

Installed in markets, schools, factories and military facilities. This meant radio reached huge audiences as people listened to each radio set throughout their day.

Question 14

Nature of radio propaganda

Answer 14

State controlled, so news broadcasts, gave excellent opporttunities for Fascist propaganda.

M’s major speeches were broadcast live and were played via loudspeakers in public squares and buildings.

Question 15

Censorship

Answer 15

After 1925- independent newspapers were closed and their editors arrested.

Press law of December 1925- stipulated only registered journalists could write for the newspapers, and the Fascists controlled the register.

M read newspapers avidly and remaining editors knew opposition messages would lead to severe consequences.

Political groups and parites which opposed the Fascists could not communicate with potential anti-F supporters.

Question 16

Examples of censorship:

Answer 16

Ministry of popular culture (in 1937 it was renamed).

This org introduced strict censorship of newspapers, radio, film, theatre and foreign publications. Editors not allowed to publish anti F opinions and had to avoid reporting on negative stories such as suicides, crime or public disasters. (Would make Italy seem less glorious and successful).

News foucussed on superficial matters such as ceremonies and the movement of M and the Royal family, alongside regime politics.

Question 17

Was the press fully coordinated by the government?

Answer 17

No.

Catholic newspaper Osservatore Romano had a large readership and did not always print stories that were conductive to Fascist principles, although it avoided direct criticism of the regime.

Most censorship was carried out by editors themselves and F intervention was hardly ever needed.

Question 18

Cult of il Duce

Answer 18

A cult of personality constructed by Mussolini and his propagandists.

Presented M as an ideal, infallible leader who saved Italy from socialism and economic stagnation.

Aimed to increase M’s popularity and the regime’s alongside it, as well as associating the success of F with him in order to allow him to dominate the movement.

Question 19

Examples of Cult

Answer 19

Media used to promote the cult represented him as a superman figure, a man of action and energy.

Propaganda pictures showed him in poses as a wrestler, swimmer, racing car driver and pilot.

Held up as the perfect role model for Italian males and the epitome of masculinity.

M shown as cultured and literary figure, reading shakespeare, writing poety and playing the violin.

Stories were published claiming he worked 20 hour days on gov business.

Never mentioned his age or the fact he had to wear glasses.

Public speeches used to encourage the cult, mass media made sure they reached a wide audience.

Associated with Roman imagery and was often depicted as the new Julius Caesar, representing the F regime as a new age of glory for Italy.

Referred to Imperial Rome and took Caesar for inspiration. The Fascist symbol came from the Fasces carried by the lictors of ancient Rome. Archaeology was manipulated to support glories of Fascism and draw close connections to Imperial Rome. Strong military elements to the uniform and pictures of successful battles or weapons.

Question 20

Effect of Cult of Il Duce on Italians

Answer 20

Became convinced that there was no realistic political alternative to Mussolini and the Fascists, some Italians became fervent fans of M as a man and leader.

Others were more sceptical, but expressing this would lead to repression.

M began to believe his own propaganda, spending more time on image than policy.

Overall it is hard to tell how many of the Italian people followed him.

Question 21

New culture

Answer 21

Propaganda purposes, believingit could greatly enhance the authority of Fascism.

External prestige.

Aimed to create new, modern Italian culture based on traditions of a more glorious past. Ignoring much more recent history.

Question 22

Art

Answer 22

Used as means of propaganda.

Neo-classicists looked to ancient Rome for inspiration

Modernists- favoured clean lines and geometric shapes, experemented with more abstract styles.

Artists expected to join the Syndicate of Professionals and Artists, and had to profess loyalty to the regime.

Organised around 50 exhibitions a year to increase familiarity with art and celebrate the achievements of the regime.

Question 23

Architecture

Answer 23

Demonstrate Stength and dynamism.

Show stability and power of M’s regime.

Done through construction of vast and imposing buildings, particulary in the important Italian cities of Milan and Rome.

Helped promote the regime through futuristic design, creating an image of a new Fascist utopia as great as the ancient Roman Empire.

Question 24

Failure to win over intelligentsia

Answer 24

To the educated fascism was seen as a vehicle for career advancement rather than intellectual inspiration and the Italian intelligentsia did not become intellectually engaged with the regime.

Question 25

Repression and terror

Answer 25

After 1922 estimates claim only around 400 people died (considerably less than other dictators of the century). Yet this was largely due to the fact that other methods of control were used.

November 1926- Public security decree gave gov appointed provincial prefects the power to place under police supervision anyone who was perceived as a political threat.

Law for the defence of the state- special tribunals to try anyone accused of political crimes. (Done on mass normally not fair)

Propaganda and popular policies could be seen as more significant.

Question 26

Role of security services

Answer 26

Used police, militia and secret police (OVRA) to threaten, imprison and punish political opponents.

Police activity on a much larger scale than previous regimes, more investigations and searches were carried out. (Prison conditions remained very poor and even declined in comparison to the liberal state)

Political opponents forced into foreign countries and some assassinated there by Fascist agents.

The 1926 attempted assassination of Mussolini led to an incrase in state repression. A special tribunal tried thousands and led to 49 death sentences.

Others sent to prison for varying terms or held under house arrest.

Threat of severe punishment was real and those tempted to commit anti-F acts could face harsh consequences.

Question 27

ORVA

Answer 27

1927 established

Fearsome reputation promoted by the regime

5,000 members, spied on fascists and non-fascists.

Had powers to arrest and hold suspects without trial, search people and places, tap phones and intercept the post.

Established a climate of repression and fear.

Used to intimidate potential political opponents, to beat up those who were not cooperating and to seize property.

Question 28

Isolation for society

Answer 28

Prisons set up in remote areas, to house political opponents.

(10,000 sent there during the lifespan of the regime)

The death penalty was restored for serious offences, by 1940 only 10 people had been sentenced to death.

The main method adopted was to encourage conformity through propaganda, incentives and manipulation as opposed to relying on systematic repression and terror.

Question 29

Anti-Semitic decrees

Answer 29

1938- 10,000 Jewish members of PNF.

Mussolini had Jewish mistresses.

1937- Count Ciano, did not support anti-Semitic policies and the regime even allowed 3,000 Jews to enter as refugees from Germany.

Some argue that there is no evidence of Nazi pressure for the Italian racial laws and that they actually stemmed from a fear Jews would not be loyal in a war. (European jews critical of abyssinia invasion, french PM critical of involvement in spanish civil war.)

Jewish freedoms and SOL declined rapidly when these laws were passed. There was constant fear Mussolini might embrace violent attacks upon Italian Jews which had happened in Germany in 1938. During WWII Mussolini was aware of Nazi atrocities but never criticised or objected to them.

Question 30

Where AS policies consistently applied?

Answer 30

No.

AS laws included exemptions for those who served in WWI.

Many gov and fascist officials did not rigidly apply the AS laws, primarily due to religious and moral reasons or because they had close connections to Jewish families or friends.

M’s sons protected their Jewish friends from persecution.

yet some Fascists advocated support for genocide. (1942 Farinacci).

The Regime collapsed in 1943 and M returned to power with the support of the nazis, he issued a decree in 1943 ordering ocnfiscation of all Jewish property and rounding up of all Jews.

9,000 were sent to death camps and only 600 survived.

Yet AS laws never fully supported and were unpopular with the majority of Italians.

Academic and business elites, along with the church spoke out against them losing the movement support from people who were previously loyal, and the anti-Fascist movements benefited.