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PSY 226 > Topic 2 - Methodology > Flashcards

Topic 2 - Methodology Flashcards

1
Q

Does common sense agree with scientific findings?

A

No, they are often at odds

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2
Q

What is the bystander effect?

A

A social psychological theory that states that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when there are other people present.
AKA - Kitty Genovese Syndrome

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3
Q

What are Good Samaritan Laws? What is their purpose?

A

Sometimes people were scared of getting in trouble by seeming involved if they came to the aid - Good Samaritan Laws were developed to show that as long as you do your best, nothing bad is going to happen to you legally (within reason).

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4
Q

What is the problem with hindsight bias?

A

Results of some social psychology experiments may seem obvious
○ Why? Familiarity with the subject matter
○ Social influence, social behaviour
Hindsight bias = the tendency to exaggerate our ability to have predicted an outcome before it occurred

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5
Q

Explain the continuous march of science.

A

It’s a continuous cycle of:
observation, question, hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion, repeat.

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6
Q

What is diffusion of responsibility?

A

As the number of bystanders increases, the personal responsibility that an individual bystander feels decreases.

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7
Q

What are the common social psychology research designs?

A

Observational, Correlational, and Experimental

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8
Q

Ethnography is an example of what type of research design? What is Ethnography?

A

Observation
- chief method of cultural anthropology, which is the study of human cultures and societies (often go into communities and observe people, how they live, certain rituals).

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9
Q

What is the observational method? What does it ask?

A

Asks: what is the nature of the phenomenon as it plays out in everyday life?

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10
Q

What is inter-judge reliability? Why is it important to observational method?

A

(Must be ensured in observational method)

The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data must be relatively high
- ensures consistency between the judges and what they are seeing

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11
Q

What are the limits to the observational method?

A

Certain behaviours are difficult to observe

Archival analysis limitations

Does not allow prediction and explanation

People may alter their behaviour when observed (Hawthorne Effect)

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12
Q

What is the correlational method?

A

a statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another

two variables are systematically measured, and the relationship between them is assessed by calculating the correlational coefficient

can make direct observations of people’s behaviour and correlate that with other factors

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13
Q

How might you measure diffusion of responsibility from a correlational approach?

A

ex. police reports
count # of witnesses interviewed in public crimes

count # of people who intervened to assist

statistically evaluate the possible relationship between these variables
(correlation coefficient)

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14
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A

increases in the value of one variable are associated with increases in the value of the other variable
OR
decreases in the value of one variable are associated with decreases in the value of the other variable

(variables move in the same direction)

positive correlation coefficient

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15
Q

What is a negative correlation?

A

increases in the value of one variable are associated with decreases in the value of the other variable (and vice versa)

variables move in opposite directions

negative correlation coefficient

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16
Q

What is the “Fonzy test”?

A

Each thumb is a variable
same direction = positive
opposite direction = negative

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17
Q

What is the range of correlation coefficients?

A

-1 to 1

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18
Q

What does a correlation coefficient of 0 mean?

A

variables are not correlated

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19
Q

Analysis of survey data may be used for what type of research?

A

correlational research

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20
Q

How can correlational research be made more generalizable?

A

By using random sampling
- Ensuring that a sample is representative of a population by giving everyone an equal chance of being selected

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21
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of correlational research?

A

Advantages:
- investigate relations between variables difficult to observe (ex. sexual behaviour)

Disadvantages:
- accuracy of responses: people may not know the answer, but they think they do
(they don’t always know how or why they acted in a particular way)

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22
Q

What are limits of the correlational method?

A

Correlation does NOT equal causation. (only tells us if two variables are related)

social psychology’s goal is to identify causes of social behaviour (to enable predictions about what people will do in certain circumstances)

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23
Q

What is the only way to determine causality?

A

By using the experimental method

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24
Q

What is the experimental method? (How is it set up?)

A

Researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions.

Conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people’s responses).

25
Q

What is the difference between the control group and experimental group?

A

Control group: no special (experimental) treatment; usual conditions

Experimental group: receives special (experimental) treatment; unusual conditions - something added or taken away

26
Q

What study did Darley and Latané do to test Diffusion of Responsibility through the experimental approach?

A

research participants overhear enacted epileptic seizure

hypothesized that the presence of additional observers would increase time to respond

27
Q

What is the difference between the independent variable and dependent variable?

A

IV: What researchers manipulate to see if it has an effect
- ex. perceived number of other witnesses to the seizure

DV: What researchers measure to see if it is affected by differences in the IV
- ex. helping behaviour (time to respond)

28
Q

What was Darley and Latané’s findings on the Bystander Effect?

A

Individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present; the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is that one of them will help, due to diffusion of responsibility.

A person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when others are present; the individual assumes that others either are responsible or have already done so.

29
Q

In Darley and Latané’s study, when people thought they were the only person that observed the seizure, what % would go for help?

A

85%

30
Q

What is the 5 step model for helping?

A

1) Notice that something is happening
2) interpret meaning of event
3) take responsibility for providing help
4) know how to help
5) provide help

31
Q

What are the possible 3 risks within the 5 step model for helping?

A

Risk of pluralistic ignorance: the belief that one’s own private judgement differs from those of others, even though one’s public behaviour is identical.

Risk of diffusion of responsibility: a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when other bystanders or witnesses are present.

Risk of audience inhibition: avoiding action to avoid potential failure and/or embarrassment.

32
Q

What is pluralistic ignorance?

A

the belief that one’s own private judgement differs from those of others, even though one’s public behaviour is identical

33
Q

What is diffusion of responsibility?

A

a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when other bystanders or witnesses are present

34
Q

What is audience inhibition?

A

avoiding action to avoid potential failure and/or embarrassment

35
Q

Does the bystander effect play out in online communities too?

A

Yes - example in class with Larry Froistad and Kevin Whitrick

Raised questions about online bystander responsibilities

36
Q

What are some possible ways of overcoming bystander apathy or enhancing their likelihood of helping?

A

1) Promote Awareness
- of possible risks associated with various activities or health conditions
- be aware of the impact of the bystander effect on self and others

2) Enhance competence
- promote widespread training in first aid for both mental and physical health

37
Q

What are limits of the experimental method?

A

Experimental situations can be:
- artificial
- distant from real life
- impacted by observer effect (Hawthorne Effect)

Will findings generalize to real life? Explain and predict actual behaviour in the world?

38
Q

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

A

Human subjects in an experiment might change their behaviour simply because they are being studied.

39
Q

Do psychology findings replicate outside the lab?

A

Because most psychological research occurs in the laboratory under artificial circumstances, it makes it easier to control, but it leaves the discipline vulnerable to claims that the results aren’t really relevant to real life.

University of Virginia found that overall, findings replicate the real world. Positive correlation between the findings.
Some sub-disciplines did better than others.

40
Q

What sub-discipline did best and worst in terms of replication outside the lab?

Where does social psychology fit in?

A

Best: industrial-organizational psychology (how we can enhance working environments and productivity)

Worst: developmental psychology

Social psychology has a moderate replication rate.

41
Q

Why might results of some social psychological experiments seem obvious?

A

Problem of hindsight bias
due to familiarity with the subject matter (social influence, social behaviour)

42
Q

What is hindsight bias?

A

the tendency to exaggerate our ability to have predicted an outcome before it occurred

43
Q

What is cross-cultural research? What is its purpose?

A

Research conducted in different cultures
- seeks to sort universal processes of social psychology from those that might be culturally-dependent

44
Q

Is the effect of relating violent video game use to increased aggression able to be generalized across cultures?

A

Yes, comparative cross-cultural results confirm earlier experimental studies and cross-sectional studies that have suggested that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later aggressive behaviour.

45
Q

What is evolutionary psychology research?

A

attempts to explain social behaviour in terms of genetic factors that have evolved in the human species over time according to the principles of natural selection

core idea: social behaviours that are prevalent today can be explained, in part, by evolved adaptations to past social environments.
- uses evolutionary theories developed by Charles Darwin to explain how animals evolved over time and adapted to different environments

46
Q

What is the idea around social neuroscience?

A

examines the connection between biological processes and social behaviour
(we are social animals)

brain activity is monitored as participants process social information

47
Q

What technologies are used in social neuroscience?

A

electroencephalography (EEG) - uses electrodes on scalp

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - measures changes in blood flow in the brain

48
Q

What are the 4 general ethical principles that serve as ideals for psychologists?

What is the priority if there is conflict?

A

1) respect for the dignity of persons and peoples
2) responsible caring
3) integrity in relationships
4) responsibility to society

listed in order of importance/priority; if there is a conflict, this hierarchy informs decisions

49
Q

What are some of the specific considerations for ethical practice for social psychology researchers?

A

informed consent, deception, debriefing

50
Q

What is informed consent?

Is informed consent always possible?

A

agreement to participate in an experiment knowing the full nature of the experiment in advance

(Where it is feasible to tell you the full nature of the experiment, we do. But sometimes this isn’t possible. If not used, requires special permission from ethical boards to use deception experiments)

51
Q

What is deception?

A

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study of the events that will actually transpire

52
Q

What is debriefing?

A

explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired

53
Q

What is the purpose of an institutional review board? How does it work?

A

ensures the safety and dignity of research participants
(weighs harms and benefits)

must include at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one person who is not affiliated with the institution

reviews and approves studies before research is conducted

procedures that are judged to be overly stressful or upsetting must be changes or deleted before the study can be conducted

54
Q

What are 2 goals of social psychology that can come in ethical conflict?

A

1) create experiments that resemble the real world (promotes external validity) and are well controlled (promoted internal validity)

2) avoid causing participants stress, discomfort, or unpleasantness
(minimize harm, get informed consent, protect confidentiality/anonymity, avoid unnecessary use of deception, right to withdraw without penalty, debriefing)

55
Q

Was the well / pit of despair study (Harlow, 1970s) ethical?

A

No, the harm to these primates likely did not outweigh the benefit for the psychological research

the results seemed too “common sense” for that harm

56
Q

What is covert research? When might this be done?

A

covert research: research that is not declared to research participants (participants don’t even know that they are part of the study) - often condemned as intrinsically unethical
- generally only done if necessary and with permission of someone in the organization who can oversee

57
Q

Is Jan for or opposed covert research?

A

She is opposed to covert research

58
Q

What is the example in class of the covert research?

A

The Seekers (cult study)

59
Q

What are 3 classic ethically questionable studies of social psychology?

A

Stanford Prison Experiment

Milgram’s Obedience Study

Robber’s Cave Experiment

PSY 226 (11 decks)

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