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Biology 107 > Topic 2: Chemical Bonds and Macromolecules > Flashcards

Topic 2: Chemical Bonds and Macromolecules Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 major/essential macromolecules?

A

Oxygen, Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

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2
Q

Elements required in small quantities are called

A

Trace elements

Note: All organisms have the same macromolecules but their trace elements differ across organisms.

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3
Q

Elements contained in DNA

A

CHON + P

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorus.

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4
Q

Elements contained in protein

A

CHON + S

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur.

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5
Q

What feature makes water useful?

A

It is a polar molecule due to

a highly electronegative oxygen atom.

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6
Q

Define electronegativity:

A

atoms attraction for electrons
Highly electronegative has a great pull of elements electrons (more attractive), low electronegative element has less of a pull (less attractive)

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7
Q

Define Polarity:

A

The unequal distribution of electron in bond
Which creates a dipole

Makes one side of the compound partially changed positive and the other end negative

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8
Q

What happens when two bonded atoms have weak electronegativity?

A

No polarity occurs (nonpolar)

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9
Q

What happens when one has weak electronegativity and the other has strong electronegativity?

A

Polarity occurs.

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10
Q

How do hydrogen bonds form in water?

A

Polarity allows water molecules to form hydrogen bonds with each other.
As H2O interacts with itself and other polar molecules
(this forms the H bond)

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11
Q

Why don’t water and lipid/fats mix?

A

Because water repels nonpolar molecules since water is polar
(only polar and polar molecules dissolve each other, so polar and non-polar molecules repel each other)

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12
Q

Define covalent bonds

A

2 atoms share a pair of electrons = strong bond
(molecule consists of 2 or more atoms)

Another explanation:
Covalent bonds are the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms.
Molecules consist of 2+ atoms with covalent bonds. (strong bond)

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13
Q

Define Ionic bonds

A

The electronegativity in one atom rips off the electrons of another atom of the opposite electronegativity and ions are formed.
(Ex. Cl- Na+)

Another explanation:
Ionic bonds: e- is transferred between two atoms with opposite electronegativities, atoms become charged and stay associated.(strong bond)

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14
Q

Define hydrogen bond

A

Interaction between H atom and any other polar molecules through dipole partial charges

• A hydrogen bond forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bound to an electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom. (weak bond)

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15
Q

Define Van der waal interactions

A

Van der waal interactions are attractions between molecules that are close together which result its charges. (weak bond).

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16
Q

What bonds are considered strong, which ones weak?

A

Strong: ionic and covalent bonds
Weak: hydrogen bond and van der waal interactions

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17
Q

What is the backbone of life and how?

A

Carbon

  • Life is carbon based
  • Carbon is able to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
  • Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, lipids in living matter are all composed of carbon compounds.
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18
Q

Why is carbon the backbone of life?

A
  • Carbon can form bonds with 4 other molecules. Ex: Methane
  • It can form chains (this is why it is great for building macromolecules) ex. C-C-C-C
  • It can form double and triple bonds. Ex: ethene C=C and ethyne
  • Therefore, have a great molecular diversity
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19
Q

Why is the bond between carbon and hydrogen non-polar?

A

This is because both elements are too weak in their electronegativity.

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20
Q

What happens when Oxygen is added to the bond between carbon and hydrogen?

A

It becomes polar because Oxygen is highly electronegative (oxygen form dipole).

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21
Q

What is the electronegativity of carbon and oxygen

A

Carbon: 2.5
Oxygen: 3.5

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22
Q

What are macromolecules?

A

Macromolecules are large and complex molecules that are covalently bonded.

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23
Q

What bonds are macromolecules built with?

A

Covalent bonds

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24
Q

What is structure and function inseparable (always associated with each other)?

A

The structure of macromolecules determines its function.

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25
Q

The smaller, repeating molecules that serve as building blocks are called

A

Monomer

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26
Q

What is a polymer?

A

A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks.
- Made up of chains of monomers

Note:
poly: many
Mono: single or one

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27
Q

Every polymer is built on

A

Monomers

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28
Q

What are the 4 of life’s organic molecules

A

1) Carbohydrates (polymers of sugar)
2) Proteins (polymer of amino acids)
3) Nucleic acids (monomers of nucleotides)
4) Lipids

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29
Q

Which of the organic molecules is not a polymer?

A

Lipids (made up of atoms not monomers)

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30
Q

Difference between synthesis and breakdown

based on the chaining type, bond type, energy use, name of its system

A

Synthesis

  • Growing of the chain (adding more and more monomers)
  • Formation of covalent bonds
  • Requires energy
  • Involves process of dehydration/condensation

Breakdown

  • Taking the chain apart
  • Cleavage (splitting) of covalent bond
  • Energy is available (energy is made back).
  • Involves process of hydrolysis
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31
Q

Dehydration is also called

A

Condensation synthesis

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32
Q

Difference between dehydration and hydrolysis

A

Dehydration

  • Synthesizing a polymer
  • Removal of water molecules
  • Form a new bond
  • Water is a product of the reaction

Hydrolysis

  • Breaking down a polymer
  • Addition of water
  • Breaks bond
  • Water is the reactant
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33
Q

What are carbohydrates?

A

Sugars and polymers of sugars

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34
Q

Simple or sugars are called

A

monosaccharides

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35
Q

Carbohydrate macromolecules refer to

A

polysaccharides

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36
Q

What are the functions of carbohydrate ?

A
  • Energy storage
  • Cell structure
  • Cell-cell recognition
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37
Q

What three elements are found in monosaccharides?

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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38
Q

Molecular formula of monosaccharides are usually multiples of

A

CH2O

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39
Q

What is the main energy source of the cell?

A

Glucose

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40
Q

2 forms of glucose:

A

linear and ring form

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41
Q

In our cell glucose exist in which form?

A

Ring form

42
Q

What is the reactive group in glucose?

A

-OH group

43
Q

What is the formula for glucose?

A

C6H12O6

44
Q

The bond between 2 monosaccharides is called?

A 
Glycosidic linkage (a covalent bond/strong bond)
“Glyco” = sugar
45
Q

What is one isomer of glucose?

A

Fructose

46
Q

List the 4 polysaccharides

A

Starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin

47
Q

What is glycosidic linkage?

A

A covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

48
Q

What is the main functions of glycosidic linkage and where are they found?

A

Storage function

  • Starch found in plants
    • Starch is branched, not as much as glycogen
    • Alpha 1,4 glycosidic linkage (number 1 Carbon to number 4 Carbon) and alpha 1,6 at the branching points
    • Starch is the main storage of carbohydrates in plants.
  • Glycogen found in animals
    • Highly branched
    • Main storage in animals and fungi.

Structural function

  • Cellulose in plants
    • Not branched, straight “ropes” of glucose
    • Alpha 1,4 and beta 1,4 glycosidic link
      • Alternating links makes cellulose really strong
  • Chitin in fungi and exoskeleton arthropods
49
Q

2 types of starch

A
  • Amylose: completely unbranched
  • Amylopectin: a complex form of starch, is a branched polymer with 1-6 linkages at the branch points.
  • *Alpha 1,6 glycosidic linkage creates branches.
50
Q

Glycogen is found mainly in?

A

Liver and muscle cells.

Hydrolysis of glycogen releases what and when?
It releases glucose when the demand for sugar is high.

51
Q

Difference between Starch and glycogen

A

Starch:

  • Branched (not as branched as glycogen)
  • Longer than Glycogen

Glycogen:

  • Highly branched
  • Shorter than starch
52
Q

Similarities between Starch and glycogen

A
  • Both have the same monomer (glucose)

- Have the same linkage/attachment (glycosidic linkage)

53
Q

Why can’t humans digest cellulose?

A

This is because we are unable to break the Beta 1,4 glycosidic linkage that allows it to form a tough/tight fibre.

54
Q

What is the only organism that can break the beta 1,4 glycosidic linkage in cellulose?

A

Bacteria.

55
Q

Example of organisms that can digest cellulose and why?

A

Cows can digest cellulose because of the bacteria in their stomach.

56
Q

what are the unifying feature of lipids?

A

they aggregate AWAY from water (they are hydrophobic, water hating/disliking!) and have non polar C-H chains

57
Q

What makes Lipid non-polar and aggregate away from water?

A

The absence of Oxygen in its chain.

58
Q

Biologically important functions of fats:

A

fats = storage molecules

- Constructed from glycerol and fatty acids

59
Q

Biologically important functions of phospholipids:

A

Phospholipids = cell membrane bilayer

- Glycerol backbone, polar phosphate head, two hydrophobic fatty acid tails

60
Q

Biologically important functions of steroids:

A

Steroids = a variety of functions and appearances. Very diverse!!
- Made of 4 fused carbon rings with other compounds, more rings, etc, attached to the base rings

61
Q

Glycerol is composed of?

A

3 carbon alcohol + OH at each carbon atom

62
Q

Fatty acid is composed of?

A

1 carboxyl group + long C-H

63
Q

Main fat used for storage is?

A

Triglyceride

64
Q

How is fatty acid formed?

A

Fatty acid is formed from the dehydration of glycerol.

65
Q

What tells at what temperature fat turns to solid?

A

Variation in tail length and double bond

66
Q

Phospholipid is similar to?

A

Triglyceride

67
Q

What is the difference between phospholipids and triglyceride?

A

Phospholipids have a hydrophilic phosphate group instead of a third tail as in triglyceride.

68
Q

What does it mean to be amphipathic and give an example?

A

Amphipathic means one end of the molecule is polar and the other end is nonpolar.
Phospholipids are amphipathic. (Tails: hydrophobic/non-polar, head: polar/hydrophilic)

69
Q

The head of phospholipid is hydrophilic/polar because?

A

Because of the changed phosphate.

70
Q

What happens when phospholipids are added to water?

A

They spontaneously self-assemble into a bilayer.

71
Q

What is referred to as the building block of life?

A

Proteins

72
Q

What are the monomers of proteins?

A

Amino acids

73
Q

Functions of proteins:

A
  • Speeding up (catalyzing) chemical reactions (enzymes)
  • Storage
  • Structural support
  • Transport
  • Cellular communications
  • Movement
  • Defense against foreign substances
74
Q

Proteins are constructed/made from a set of how many amino acids?

A

20 amino acids(aas)

75
Q

Polymers of amino acids (connected in specific sequence) are called?

A

Polypeptides

76
Q

A protein consists of?

A

One or more polypeptides

77
Q

Biologically active or functional molecules are?

A

Proteins

**For polypeptides to become proteins work has to be done on the structure.

78
Q

Parts of an amino acid

A
  • Alpha carbon
  • Amino group
  • Carboxyl group
79
Q

What are the reactive groups in amino acids and their function?

A

Amino group and carboxyl groups are the reactive groups involved in creating covalent bonds to create polymers

80
Q

3 broad categories of amino acids:

A
  • Non-polar side chains
  • Polar side chains
  • Electrically charged side chains
81
Q

Amino acids are linked by?

A

Peptide Bonds

82
Q

What is a peptide bond?

A

Is a bond formed from a dehydration reaction between amino group and carboxyl of two amino acids.

83
Q

What is the directionality of polypeptide chains?

A

From amino terminus (N) to Carboxyl Terminus(C)

84
Q

New amino acids are always added to the?

A

carboxyl group.

85
Q

Polypeptide is not a protein until it is?

A

in its proper folded structure.

86
Q

4 structures of protein

A
  • Primary structure
  • Secondary structure
  • Tertiary structure
  • Quaternary structure
87
Q

Primary structure protein

A
  • Sequence of amino acids
  • Determined by inherited genetic information.
  • Other level of structure is determined by the primary structure
  • Primary structure determines the function of the protein
88
Q

Secondary structure protein

A
  • Two forms: alpha helix and beta pleated sheet

- Hydrogen bonds between amino acids forms the helix or pleated sheets

89
Q

Tertiary structure protein

A
  • An overall shape of the protein
  • Determined by R-group interactions, NOT by backbone interactions
  • Some proteins function perfectly fine in this form
90
Q

Quaternary structure protein

A
  • 2 or more polypeptides join together to form a macromolecule
  • Ex. hemoglobin has 4 polypeptides (tetramer)
91
Q

Factors that affect protein structure

A
  • pH
  • Salt concentration
  • Temperature
92
Q

Two types of nucleic acids:

A

→ Deoxyribonucleic acid – DNA

→ Ribonucleic acid – RNA

93
Q

Central Dogma:

A

DNA → RNA is transcription

RNA → proteins is translation

94
Q

Transcription and translation are SEPARATE in eukaryotes – this happens in the ______ and on the __________, respectively. Transcription and translation occur TOGETHER in prokaryotes, in the _______.

A

nucleus, ribosomes, cytoplasm

95
Q

What is the role of mRNA?

A

To transmit information within the cell

96
Q

What are nucleic acid monomers and polymers called?

A

Monomers: nucleotides Polymers: polynucleotides

97
Q

A nitrogen base + sugar ring is called?

A

Nucleoside

98
Q

A nucleoside + phosphate group is called?

A

nucleotide

99
Q

Name the different nitrogenous bases

A

In DNA:
Adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
In RNA:
Adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil

100
Q

DNA vs. RNA pentose sugars:

A

In DNA, there is one less oxygen bonded to the H at the 2’C
- Deoxyribose sugar
In RNA, there is an oxygen bonded to the H at the 2’C
- Ribose sugar

101
Q

Nucleotide polymers

A

Directionality
- Read from 5’C to 3’C
- This is the direction of synthesis
Backbone
- Sugar phosphate backbone (in DNA)
Bonding
- Covalent bond as a result of dehydration synthesis
- Phosphodiester bond between sugars and phosphate group
Charge?
- The phosphate group is negatively charged

102
Q

Complementary base pairing

A

Adenine bonds with thymine in DNA and with uracil in RNA
- There are 2 hydrogen bonds
Cytosine bonds with guanine in both DNA and RNA
- There are 3 hydrogen bonds

Biology 107 (5 decks)

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