Topic 2/Chapter 5: Research Methods

Question 1

What is quantitative research?

Answer 1

Data, statistics
Uses the scientific method
Large sample sizes (population)
High reliability and objective/deductive
Standardised procedure

Question 2

What is qualitative research?

Answer 2

Aims to answer the ‘what’ and ‘how’, more holistic/deep-analysis approach through observation (inductive) of
a small sample in natural settings to find meaning.
Aims to interpret the meaning through words, actions, and language.

Question 3

What are the three types of quantitative research?

Answer 3

Experimental
Descriptive
Correlational

Question 4

What does empirical evidence aim to do?

Answer 4

Describe: What happened/occurred?
Predict: Mental process/behaviour to occur when? Under what conditions?
Explain: Why did it occur?

Question 5

What is a theoretical framework?

Answer 5

A systematic way of organising/explaining observations which includes a set of propositions/statements that explain the relationship among various phenomena.

Question 6

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 6

A tentative belief about the relationship between 2 or more variables. Predicting findings that should be observed if the theory is correct.
A hypothesis should always be underpinned by a widely accepted theory/concept.

Question 7

What is a variable?

Answer 7

Phenomenon that can differ/vary from one situation/person to another. A characteristic that can take on different values.

Question 8

What is a standardised procedure?

Answer 8

Exposes participants of a study to as similar procedures as possible to yield replicable results.

Question 9

What is the difference between a population, sample, and participant/subject

Answer 9

Population: individuals that hold a particular characteristic that is relevant to the study area.
Sample: is a selected group of the population that can be representative.
Participant/subject - an individual taking part in a study (participant used when informed consent is obtained).

Question 10

What is sampling bias?

Answer 10

Where the study sample is not representative (or lacks generalisability) to the population. Which can lead of over/under representation.

Question 11

What is internal validity in research?

Answer 11

The method/design of the study to convincingly test the hypothesis (not influenced by other factors).

Question 12

What is external validity in research?

Answer 12

Findings can be generalised/replicated/
applied in reality, outside of the laboratory controlled environment.

Question 13

What is objective measurement?

Answer 13

Measuring a variable consistently. Creating a measurement for something “intangible” by categorising or quantifying variables.

Question 14

What is reliability in research?

Answer 14

Findings can be replicated and are consistent across the sample. Minimal fluctuation (within reason).

Question 15

What are the three types of reliability in research?

Answer 15

Retest reliability: test yields similar results when administered to the same individual over time.
Internal consistency: different ways of asking a question yields similar results.
Inter-rater reliability: 2 researchers yield similar responses to the questions/statements. Researchers may need a detailed coding manual to ensure they are similarly “calibrated”.

Question 16

What is test bias?

Answer 16

The mean (average) is significantly different between 2 groups.
Test scores make incorrect predictions in reality.

Question 17

What is meant by multiple measures?

Answer 17

All measures have an error/discrepancy margin between the phenomenon as measured and the actual phenomenon as it occurs. Multiple measures creates a “safety net” for these discrepancies.

Question 18

What is the experimental method?

Answer 18

Manipulates aspects (variables) of the situation to examine participant’s responses. Aims to establish cause and effect (causation) directly.

Question 19

How is causation demonstrated?

Answer 19

Through experimentation of manipulating one variable (independent variable) which leads to predicted changes in another (dependent variable).

Question 20

What is an independent variable?

Answer 20

A variable that is outside of the participants control and can be manipulated by the researcher to yield the predicted response.

Question 21

What is a dependent variable?

Answer 21

A variable that is a direct response of the independent variable (which can be influenced by the participants exposure to the IV).

Question 22

What is a control group?

Answer 22

Participants are exposed to a neutral condition (instead of manipulated IV), which gives researchers a clearer picture of the impact of the group exposed to the manipulated IV

Question 23

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 23

Where participants may attempt to pre-empt what the researchers are looking for by picking up on cues in the study, causing potential data bias.

Question 24

What is single-blind study?

Answer 24

Where the participant is given as little information as possible about the experiment (to prevent demand characteristics).

Question 25

What is double-blind study?

Answer 25

Where both the participant and researcher are unaware of the experimental condition (IV) they are exposed to avoid data-bias from demand characteristics.

Question 26

What are confounding variables?

Answer 26

Where the IV and DV produce the same results, and are actually a case of an entirely different variable.

Question 27

What are descriptive statistics?

Answer 27

Describing data findings to summarise the main features of the research.

Question 28

What are inferential statistics?

Answer 28

Drawing conclusions (inferring) from the sample and generalising it to the population.
This is used to determine if the IV was the cause or if random factors where responsible for results.

Question 29

What are the limitations of the experimental method and quasi-experimental design?

Answer 29

Experiments usually take place in manipulated environments to yield the predicted findings, as such, these may not always be replicated easily in reality.

Question 30

What is quasi-experimental design research?

Answer 30

In comparison to the experimental method, this design limits the amount of control over the IVs and exposure to different conditions (no random assignment of participants which may result in major differences, resulting affected data integrity/ reliability).

Question 31

What is descriptive research?

Answer 31

Attempts to describe phenomena as it occurs (no manipulation of variables). Methods include case studies, naturalistic studies, and survey research. Descriptive methods cannot determine causation like experimental can.

Question 32

What is a case study?

Answer 32

Research using small groups/individuals to explore more complex phenomena and requires more deep questioning. It uses an interpretive approach (hermeneutic).

Question 33

What are the limitations of case studies?

Answer 33

Limited generalisability to greater populations due to small groups and interpretive approach. Susceptible to researcher bias due to the intense nature of questioning. Cannot determine causation.

Question 34

What are the strengths of case studies?

Answer 34

Effective at the commencement/end of a study series to determine a hypothesis as it allows researchers insight into its application in reality (i.e., higher external validity).

Question 35

What is naturalistic observation?

Answer 35

In-depth observation of phenomena as it occurs in a natural setting.

Question 36

What are the limitations of naturalistic observation?

Answer 36

Knowledge of being watched.
Researcher bias - viewing through predetermined lens.
Generalisability - application to greater population (small sample size may not be representative).
Can only describe behaviours, not determine why they occur (IV cannot be manipulated).

Question 37

What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?

Answer 37

High external validity.

Question 38

What is survey research?

Answer 38

Asking a large sample group questions regarding attitudes and behaviours (most commonly interviews and questionnaires). Sample group is usually a random sample chosen from all populations to ensure diversity of participants.

Question 39

What is a stratified random sample?

Answer 39

Used when researchers want to highlight the proportional representations from different sub-populations. This method defines the percentage randomly selected from each sub-population to ensure adequate representation.

Question 40

What are the limitations of survey research?

Answer 40

Susceptible to participants telling the truth, accurately describing themselves (not painting themselves in a better light than in reality).
Cannot determine causation.

Question 41

What is correlational research?

Answer 41

Determines the degree to which 2 or more variables are related - knowing the value of one can be used to predict the other (co-occurence of events). Most often relies of self-report data from survey research.

Question 42

What is a correlation co-efficient?

Answer 42

What measures the extent 2 variables are related (literally, co-related, or related to each other).

Question 43

What is a positive correlation and what does it mean?

Answer 43

Positive correlations are anything above 0 (+). The higher the participant scores on 1 variable, the higher they are likely to measure on the other (e.g., as height increases, so will weight).

Question 44

What is a negative correlation and what does it mean

Answer 44

Negative correlations are anything below 0 (-). The higher the participant scores on one measure, the lower they are likely to score on the other (e.g., as smoking habits increase, the life expectancy decreases).

Question 45

What is a strong correlation co-efficient?

Answer 45

There can be strong positive and strong negative correlation; the closer the value is to each send of the scale (+1.0 or -1.0) will determine the strength. 0 means no relationship exists (meaning the variables cannot predict one another).

Question 46

What is a meaningful correlation co-efficient?

Answer 46

Correlation co-efficients of 0.3 (-/+) are considered meaningful, with anything above 0.5 (-/+) considered as a large correlation. However, some seemingly small correlation co-efficients have significant impact, which would also make them meaningful in the context of the research.

Question 47

What is a correlation matrix?

Answer 47

Table displaying the correlations among a number of variables.

Question 48

What are the limitations of correlational research?

Answer 48

Does not always mean that one variable causes the other - correlation does not imply causation.
Can only describe the relationship among variables.

Question 49

What are the strengths of correlational research?

Answer 49

High reliability outside of a laboratory environment.
Allows researcher to see if one variable causes the other, or if there is a 3rd variable that causes the correlation.

Question 50

What are brain imaging techniques that are used for research?

Answer 50

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Position Emmission Tomography (PET) Scan
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Question 51

What research methods are used in qualitative research?

Answer 51

Case studies, interviews, and observations (naturalistic/inductive approach)

Question 52

What are the three main research philosophies in psychology?

Answer 52

Positivism - straight forward perspective - objective research/measurement.
Interpretivism - concerned with subjective issues (feelings, experiences, meanings). Uses observation, interviews, and visual methods.
Critical theory - concerned with structure (power, wealth, sociocultural). Sees social research as moral-political activity aimed at social change.

Question 53

What is epistemology and what are the types?

Answer 53

A branch of philosophy re the nature, origin and scope of human knowledge.
Objectivism - contends phenomena exists independently of our beliefs/consciousness
Constructivism - meaning is not universal and a result of social/intellectual constructs. Truth and meaning are constructed in the mind (not one meaning).
Subjectivism - meaning is assigned to the phenomena by the observer (subjective/individualised perspective).

Question 54

What are the ethical considerations in psychological research?

Answer 54

Respect for rights and dignity of people/s, proprietary, and integrity
Informed consent must be obtained
Deception should be avoided unless absolutely necessary. This must be approved by the APS and ensures that participants are made aware of their rights to withdraw, right to debriefing.
Consideration for research involving non-human subjects (animals) must be considered and approved by APS and will be assessed against topic importance criteria.