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IMS Y1 v2 > Topic 2 - Cells and Tissues > Flashcards

Topic 2 - Cells and Tissues Flashcards

Moisturise me 0_0

1
Q

What is histology?

A

The study of cells & tissue by microscopy

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2
Q

What are the ABCDE of looking at skin legions?

A
  • Asymmetry (if asymmetrical may be melanoma)
  • Border (Uneven? Crusty? Notched?)
  • Colour (Healthy moles are uniform in colour)
  • Diameter (Larger than a pencil eraser?)
  • Evolving (Gotten bigger? Different colour? Bleeding/scabbing?)
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3
Q

What is histopathology?

A

The study of diseased tissues by microscopy

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4
Q

What are the clinical applications of histology?

A
  • Making a diagnosis
  • Determine a prognosis
  • Plan/confirm treatment
  • Predict/confirm response to some drugs
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5
Q

How do we made a diagnosis on a skin legion?

A
  • Examination

- Biopsy

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6
Q

What is an adjuvant treatment?

A

Applied after initial treatment for cancer, especially to suppress secondary tumour formation - post operative

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7
Q

What is a neoadjuvant treatment?

A

The administration of therapeutic agents before a main treatment - pre operative

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8
Q

What are the steps of actually performing histology on a lesion?

A
  • Fixation of tissue
  • Cut up/block selection
  • Tissue processing
  • Section cutting and mounting
  • Section staining
  • Section scanning
  • Microscopy
  • Diagnosis and prognosis prediction
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9
Q

How can we preserve tissues?

A
  • Stop autolysis
  • Prevent putrefaction
  • Increase mechanical strength to preserve the structure and morphology
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10
Q

What is putrefaction?

A

Bacterial contamination of tissue

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11
Q

What is morphology?

A

A particular form, shape, or structure (of cells)

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12
Q

What are the different types of fixatives used in histology?

A
  • Aldehyde
  • Alcohol
  • Oxidizing
  • Freezing (quick but poor morphology)
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13
Q

What is formalin, it’s strengths and weaknesses?

A
  • Formaldehyde solution
  • Most common available
  • Forms protein covalent cross-links
  • Good penetration/mechanical strength
  • Good tissue morphology preservation
  • Poor nucleic acid preservation
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14
Q

What is Glutaraldehyde?

A
  • Similar to formalin but larger molecule
  • Needs smaller tissue samples
  • Works well at low temperature
  • Used for electron microscopy
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15
Q

What is ethanol?

A
  • Fixes by precipitation
  • Reduces protein solubility -> precipitate
  • Used in cytology smears
  • Nucleic acid research (doesn’t cross link)
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16
Q

What is the aim of tissue processing?

A

A thin slice of tissue to examine under a microscope

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17
Q

How do we prepare tissue to be placed in wax?

A
  • Remove water from tissue with alcohol (dehydration)
  • Replace alcohol with xylene (clearing)
  • Replace xylene with paraffin wax (wax infiltration)
  • Orientate tissue to form a paraffin block (embedding)
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18
Q

What is the most common tissue dye stain?

A

Haematoxylin and eosin stain

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19
Q

What does haematoxylin do?

A
  • Basic dye
  • Stains acidic structures purple
  • Hence nuclei/DNA are purple
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20
Q

What does eosin do?

A
  • Acidic dye
  • Stains basic structures pink
  • Hence proteins in cytoplasm are pink
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21
Q

What is Periodic Acid Schiff?

A
  • Also a very useful tissue dye
  • Detection of mucin/mucopolysaccharides
  • Detection of fungal organisms
  • Visualization of basement membranes
  • Glycogen is PAS +ve
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22
Q

What is PAS combines with diastase?

A

DPAS

  • Enzyme diastase removes glycogen
  • Δ of enzyme deficiencies in liver
  • Exclude glycogen staining in other situations
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23
Q

What is the gram stain for bacteria?

A

G +ve is blue

G -ve is red

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24
Q

What is the Giemsa stain?

A
  • For H.pylori
  • Other uses eg. toxoplasm
  • primarily designed for the demonstration of malarial parasites in blood smears, but it is also employed in histology for routine examination of blood smear
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25
Q

What is the Grocott’s stain?

A
  • For fungi

- Highlights fungal walls black

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26
Q

What is the Oil Red O stain?

A
  • For fat

- Can only be used on frozen tissue not processed

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27
Q

What is the Orcein stain?

A
  • For copper associated protein

- Also for elastic fibres and Hep B sAg

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28
Q

What is Perl’s stain?

A
  • For iron (blue)

- For ferruginous (asbestos) bodies

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29
Q

What is the Ziehl Neelsen stain?

A

-For mycobacterium

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30
Q

How is immunohistochemistry different from tinctorial stains?

A
  • Unlike stains which are not specific it uses antibodies against a specific protein target
  • Can provide specific information on protein impression
  • Used in diagnosis and prognosis
  • Prediction of response to therapy
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31
Q

What drug does estrogen/progesterone receptor cancer respond to?

A

Tamoxifen

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32
Q

What drug does HER2 cancer respond to?

A

Herceptin

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33
Q

What is epithelium?

A

Layer or layers of cells that cover body surfaces or line body cavities

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34
Q

What are the features of epithelia?

A
  • Derived from endoderm/mesoderm/ectoderm
  • Line almost all body surfaces
  • Cellular
  • Sits on a tissue layer called the Basal Lamina
  • Stuck together tightly
  • Polar (apical/basal)
  • Avascular (rely on diffusion)
  • Regenerative
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35
Q

What will ectoderm form?

A

The epidermal layer of skin

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36
Q

What will neural ectoderm form?

A

The nervous system

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37
Q

What will endoderm form?

A

The lining of the gut, liver and lungs

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38
Q

What will mesoderm form?

A

Muscle, bone, kidneys, blood, gonads and connective tissues

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39
Q

Which body surfaces do epithelia NOT line?

A
  • articular cartilage
  • tooth enamel
  • anterior iris
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40
Q

What are the main functions of epithelia?

A
  • Absorption (nutrients)
  • Surface movement (cilia in airways/fallopian tubes)
  • Secretion (glands)
  • Gas exchange (lungs)
  • Surface lubrication (mesothelial linings)
  • Sensation
  • Protection
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41
Q

What is a tight junction?

A

Occuludin/claudin seals to protein movement/paracellular diffusion, apical

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42
Q

What is an adherens junction?

A

Transmembrane proteins connect

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43
Q

What is a gap junction?

A

Small channels (nm wide) allow intercellular ion/small molecule exchange

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44
Q

What are desmosomes?

A

Transmembrane proteins connect to others (linked to intermediate filaments) from adjacent cells

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45
Q

What are Hemi-desmosomes/focal adhesion?

A

Provide attachment to underlying basal lamina

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46
Q

What do we use to classify epithelia?

A

1st - number of layers
2nd - shape of cells at the surface
3d - specialisation/adaptions

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47
Q

What are 1 layered epithelia called?

A

simple

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48
Q

What are the shapes cells in simple epithelia can be?

A
  • Squamous (flat)
  • Cuboidal
  • Columnar
  • Pseudo-stratified
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49
Q

What do we call multilayered epithelia?

A

Stratified

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50
Q

What are the shapes cells in stratified epithelia can be?

A
  • Squamous (flat)
  • Cuboidal
  • Columnar
  • Transitional
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51
Q

What ate the features of pseudo-stratified epithelium and where is it found?

A
  • Single layer of columnar
  • Different heights
  • Looks like multiple layers
  • Found in upper airways - cilia/goblet cells
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52
Q

What are the features of transitional epithelia and where are they found?

A
  • Multiple layers
  • Changes shape (columnar AND flat)
  • Distention
  • Found in bladder/urinary tract
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53
Q

What are the adaptations epithelia might have?

A
  • Cilia
  • Secretory
  • Microvilli
  • Keratinisation
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54
Q

How does epithelium work for protection?

A
  • Prevents dehydration, chemical and mechanical damage
  • Covers inter/outer surfaces
  • Multi-layered for strength
  • Replicative to replace sloughed/damaged cells
  • Tight seals between cells
  • Specialisations such as keratinisation
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55
Q

Where can squamous epithelium be found?

A
  • Oesophagus
  • Skin
  • Vagina
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56
Q

Where can transitional epithelium be found?

A
  • Bladder

- Urinary tract

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57
Q

How is the epithelial lining of the gut adapted to absorption?

A
  • Glucose, ions, water absorbed
  • Relies on cell polarity
  • Brush border (to increase surface area, hence more absorption)
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58
Q

What is the purpose of cilia?

A

To move in co-ordination to provide unidirectional movement to move mucus/sperm/ova towards their destination

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59
Q

Where can cilia be found?

A
  • Airways
  • Testis
  • Fallopian tubes
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60
Q

How is epithelium at sites of gas exchange adapted?

A
  • Single layer of squamous cells
  • Line blood vessels
  • Minimal distance for gas diffusion
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61
Q

What are some possible adaptations of endothelial cells?

A
  • Production of prostacyclin
  • Control of vascular cell growth
  • Modulate smooth muscle activity
  • Trigger blood coagulation
  • Regulate traffic of inflammatory cells
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62
Q

What is prostacyclin?

A
  • Formed by endothelial cells
  • From arachidonic acid catalysed by prostacyclin synthase
  • Prevents adhesion of platelets to endothelium and avoids blood clot formation
  • Vasodilator
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63
Q

How do endothelial cells modulate smooth muscle activity?

A
  • Secrete smooth muscle cell relaxing factors (eg. Nitric Oxide)
  • Secrete smooth muscle cell contraction factors (eg. Endothelin 1)
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64
Q

How so endothelial cells trigger blood coagulation?

A
  • Release tissue factor that binds factor VIIa to convert factor X into factor Xa and initiate common pathway of blood clotting
  • Thrombin acts on fibrinogen to form fibrin monomers
  • Fibrin monomers self-aggregate to form a soft fibrin clot cross linked by factor XIII
  • Both platelets and fibrin form a hemostatic plug when there is an injury to the wall of a blood vessel
65
Q

How do endothelial cells regulate the traffic of inflammatory cells?

A
  • Facilitate transendothelial migration of cells involved in an inflammatory reaction in the surrounding extravascular tissue.
  • Activated macrophages secrete tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1, which induce the expression of E-selectin by endothelial cells.
66
Q

What is the mesothelium?

A
  • The epithelium that lines the pleurae, peritoneum, and pericardium
  • Simple (unilayer) and lines all body cavities
67
Q

How is mesothelium adapted for surface replication?

A
  • Potential spaces contain protein rich fluid

- Lubrication of surfaces that move against each other specifically

68
Q

What is the ectoderm?

A

One of the three primary germ layers in the very early embryo. It forms the nervous system and the epithelia of sensory organs

69
Q

What are exocrine glands?

A

Ducts open onto epithelial surfaces

70
Q

What are endocrine glands?

A

Glands without ducts secreting into blood stream

71
Q

How are exocrine glands formed?

A
  • Localised proliferation and beginning of the epithelial cell downgrowth into the underlying tissue
  • Epithelial downgrowth
  • Secretory portion with an excretory duct
72
Q

How is an endocrine gland formed?

A
  • The stalk degenerates
  • The secretory portion is surrounded by capillaries
  • An endocrine gland develops
73
Q

How so we classify glands?

A

1st - Look at the DUCT of the gland

2nd - Describe the gland

74
Q

What is a gland called if the excretory duct is unbranched?

A

‘simple’ gland

75
Q

What is a gland called if the excretory duct sub-divides?

A

‘compound’ gland

76
Q

What can the shapes of glands be described as?

A
  • Tubular with coils
  • Tubular with branches
  • Alveolar/acinar
77
Q

What classification are Intestinal glands of Lieberkuhn?

A
  • Have no excretory duct or with a very short excretory duct
  • Gland opens directly onto epithelial surface
  • SIMPLE TUBULAR
78
Q

What classification are sweat glands?

A
  • Long excretory duct
  • Coiled secretory portion
  • SIMPLE TUBULAR COILED
79
Q

What classification are glands of the stomach and uterus?

A
  • Gland is split into two or more branches
  • A short excretory duct is present in glands of tongue ad esophagus
  • SIMPLE TUBULAR BRANCHED
80
Q

What classification are sebaceous glands of the skin?

A
  • Has an excretory duct
  • The terminal secretory portion is divided by partitions into sacs called acini or alveoli
  • SIMPLE ALVEOLAR/ACINAR
81
Q

What are the mechanisms of exocrine secretion?

A
  • Merocrine
  • Apocrine
  • Holocrine
82
Q

What is the mechanism of merocrine secretion?

A
  • Protein product in intra-cellular vesicle
  • Vesicle membrane fuses with cell membrane
  • Protein product released by exocytosis
  • Fused plasma membrane recycled by endocytosis
  • Pancreatic enzymes in exocrine pancreas
83
Q

What is the mechanism of apocrine secretion?

A
  • Protein product in vesicle
  • Approaches apical membrane
  • Apical membrane pinches off with loss of some apical membrane
84
Q

What is the mechanism of holocrine secretion?

A
  • Secretory product accumulates in cytoplasm
  • Cell disintegrates to release product
  • Sebum in sebaceous glands
85
Q

Which type of exocrine secretion releases breast milk casein?

A

Merocrine

86
Q

Which type of exocrine secretion releases breast milk lipids?

A

Apocrine

87
Q

What is epidermolysis bullosa?

A
  • Blistering skin disorder
  • Inherited
  • Gene mutation of adhesion molecules that stick the epithelium to the basement membrane
  • Abnormal anchoring of epidermis to dermis
  • Blisters
88
Q

What is cystic fibrosis?

A
  • Mutations in CFTR gene
  • Defective chloride channel on apical surface of epithelial cells
  • Lungs but also exocrine glands e.g. pancreas
  • Less water in mucous > thickened
  • Builds up > cannot expel
  • Infection
89
Q

What is congenital ciliary dyskinesia?

A

-Autosomal recessive
-Abnormal cilia function > secretion accumulation
-“Kartageners syndrome”
(Bronchiectasis, Sinusitis, Situs inversus)

90
Q

What are mesenchymal tissues?

A

Connective tissues

91
Q

What are the types of mesenchymal tissues?

A
  • General connective tissues
  • Blood, blood vessels and lymph
  • Bone
  • Cartilage and joints
  • Fat
  • NB muscle
92
Q

Where do mesenchymal tissues originate?

A

The mesoderm (middle germ layer of the embryo)

93
Q

What is the purpose of connective tissues?

A

Hold together the human body and support the epithelial structures.

94
Q

What are the purposes of connective tissues?

A
  • Structure
  • Metabolic (blood vessels)
  • Defense (immune cells)
  • Storage (fat)
  • Repair (scarring)
95
Q

What are the components of connective tissues?

A
  • Extra-cellular matrix

- Cells

96
Q

What is the extra-cellular matrix?

A
  • A gel called ground substance
  • Through which run fibres
  • And percolating tissue fluid
97
Q

What does ground substance contain?

A
  • glycosaminoglycans
  • proteins
  • glycoproteins
98
Q

What are the types of fibre on connective tissues?

A

Elastin (stretch)

Collagen (Structure/strength)

99
Q

What are fibroblasts?

A

cells which make collagen, elastin, glycosaminoglycans

100
Q

What are adipocytes?

A

cells which store fat

101
Q

What kind of cells are found in connective tissue?

A
  • fibroblasts
  • adipocytes
  • immune cells
102
Q

What are the features of Marfan syndrome?

A
  • It is a defect in Fibrillin
  • Join flexibility
  • Cataracts
  • Valvular heart disease
  • Aortic dissection
103
Q

What are tissue macrophages/histiocytes?

A
  • Cells which live IN connective tissues

- Phagocyte debris/pathogens and can form multinucleate giant cells

104
Q

What are mast cells?

A
  • Live in connective tissues

- Produce vasoactive substances such as histamine in allergy

105
Q

What are leukocytes?

A

A colourless cell which circulates in the blood and body fluids and is involved in counteracting foreign substances and disease; a white (blood) cell.

106
Q

What are the types of leukocyte?

A
  • Mononuclear leukocytes (do not have lobed nuclei)

- Granulocytes (Make granules and have lobed nuclei)

107
Q

What is the difference between mononuclear leukocytes and granulocytes?

A

Mononuclear have a single non-lobed nuclei while granulocytes have a loved nuclei and produce granules

108
Q

What are lymphocytes?

A
  • Dense nuclei, poorly stained cytoplasm

- Tcells and B cells

109
Q

What are plasma cells?

A
  • Granular nuclei and basophilic cytoplasm
  • ‘Clock-faced nuclei’
  • Type of B cell
  • Antibody production
110
Q

What are granulocytes?

A
  • cytoplasmic granules

- multilobed nucleus

111
Q

What are the 3 types of granulocyte?

A
  • Basophil
  • Neutrophil
  • Eosinophil
112
Q

What do neutrophils work against?

A

Bacteria

113
Q

What do basophils work against?

A

They act like mast cells!!!

114
Q

What do eosinophils work against?

A

Parasites/allergens

115
Q

What are the notable features of neutrophils?

A

Multilobed nucleus

116
Q

What are the features of eosinophils?

A
  • Bilobed nuclei
  • Eosinophilic (pink) cytoplasmic granules
  • ‘Tomato wearing sunglasses
117
Q

What are the components in blood?

A
  • RBC
  • Immune cells (WBC, granulocytes)
  • Platelets
  • Proteins
  • Hormones
  • Metabolic waste
  • Nutrients
  • Gases
  • Plasma
118
Q

What are platelets?

A

Non-nucleated cells arising from megakaryocytes

119
Q

What are the features of a eurythrocyte?

A
  • No nucleus

- Biconcave shape

120
Q

What are the types of blood vessels?

A 
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
121
Q

What are the layers of a typical blood cell?

A

Tunica intima - inner lining/endothelium
Tunica media-muscle layer
Tunica adventitia- outer CT network

122
Q

What is the lymph?

A

lymph nodes filter lymph which returns to the blood at the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct

123
Q

What are the functions of human bones?

A
  • Movement
  • Protection
  • Haematopoieis
  • Structure
  • Calcium homeostasis
124
Q

How is bone made?

A

•Osteoblasts make osteoid (extracellular matrix)
•This is mineralised (calcium) to make bone
-Woven or lamellar
-Osteoblasts become trapped as osteocytes which maintain the bone
-Osteoclasts resorb bone in response to stress/growth/calcium status

125
Q

What are the two types of bone?

A

Woven (immature)

Lamellar (mature - compact or cancellous)

126
Q

What are chondroblasts?

A
  • Chondroblasts make ground substance and collagen fibres (extracellular matrix)
  • Chondroblasts become trapped as chondrocytes
127
Q

What are the 3 types of cartilage?

A
  • Hyaline cartilage
  • Elastic cartilage
  • Fibrocartilage
128
Q

Where is hyaline cartilage found?

A

Nose
Trachea
Joints
End of nose

129
Q

Where is elastic cartilage found?

A

Ears

130
Q

Where is fibrocartilage found?

A
  • intervertebral discs

- pubic symphysis

131
Q

Where are joints found in the body?

A
  • Bone
  • Cartilage
  • Synovium (synovial joints)
  • Ligaments
  • Tendons
  • Muscles
132
Q

How is a blood film taken?

A
  • A drop of blood is placed on one end of a microscope slide
  • Using a cover slip, the blood drop is spread out over the slide in a thin layer (producing effectively a single layer or monolayer of cells)
  • Slide is air dried, fixed and stained
  • Staining helps to identify the different blood cells (next slides)
133
Q

What are blood films used for?

A

Diagnosis of haemotological diseases and parasites

134
Q

What colours do cells come out with Romanowsky dyes?

A

Red blood cells/eosinophil granules stain pink/red

DNA/RNA stain blue/purple

Platelets/other cytoplasmic granules stain blue/purple

135
Q

What is a normal WBC count range?

A

4.0 – 11.0 x 109/L

136
Q

What is the differential count of neutrophils?

A

50-70%

137
Q

What is the differential count of lymphocytes?

A

25-35%

138
Q

What is the differential count of monocytes?

A

4-6%

139
Q

What is the differential count of eosinophils?

A

1-3%

140
Q

What is the differential count of basophils?

A

0-1%

141
Q

What is the function of neutrophils?

A
  • Defence against bacteria and fungi

- chemotactic and phagocytic/destruction

142
Q

What are the features of neutrophils?

A
  • 12-14mm
  • granular cytoplasm
  • contain microbicidal agents
  • nucleus has 2-5 lobes
  • 2.0 to 7.5 x 109/L
  • Lifespan 8-10 hours in circulation
  • 50-70% of total WBC
143
Q

What is the function of lymphocytes?

A
  • in adaptive immune responses

- antigen detecting, antibody producing

144
Q

What are the types of lymphocytes?

A
  • T lymphocytes
  • B lymphocytes
  • NK cells
145
Q

What do T lymphocytes do?

A

cell mediated immunity

146
Q

What do B lymphocytes do?

A

humoral immunity

147
Q

What do Natural Killer cells do?

A

Target virus infected cells and tumour cells

148
Q

What are the features of lymphocytes?

A
  • 6-15 micrometers
  • Large round nucleus, very little cytoplasm
  • 1.3 to 3.5 x 10^9 per litre
  • Long lifespan (years)
  • 25-35% of total WBC
149
Q

What is the function of monocytes/macrophages?

A
  • Important in defense against bacteria and fungi

- Chemotactic, phagocytic/destruction, antigen presenting

150
Q

What are the features of monocytes/macrophages?

A
  • 16-20 micrometers
  • Granular cytoplasm contains vacuoles
  • Nucleus has characteristic kidney shape
  • 0.2 to 0.8 x 10^9 per litre
  • Circulate for 1/3 days
  • Tissue macrophage long lifespan
  • Monocytes 4-6% of total WBC
151
Q

What is the function of basophils?

A
  • Defend against parasitic infection

- Contribute to hypersensitivity reactions – bind IgE

152
Q

What are the features of basophils?

A
  • 14-16 mm
  • Highly granular, dark staining cytoplasm, obscures nucleus, -Contain histamine, serotonin, prostaglandins
  • Bi-or tri-lobed nucleus
  • 0.02 to 0.1 x 109/L
  • Lifespan ~1-5 days
  • 0-1% of WBC
153
Q

What is the function of eosinophils?

A
  • Defend against parasitic (helminth/worm) infestations

- Counteract hypersensitivity reactions - histaminase

154
Q

What are the features of eosinophils?

A
  • 12-17 mm
  • Granular cytoplasm takes up eosin (characteristic pink/red colour)
  • Usually bi-lobed nucleus
  • 0.02 to 0.44 x 109/L
  • Circulate for 4-5 hours
  • Migrate into tissues
  • Lifespan 8-12 days
  • 1-3% of WBCs
155
Q

What is the function of platelets?

A

Prevention of blood loss - primary haemostasis

156
Q

What are the features of blood platelets?

A
  • 1.5-3.5 mm
  • No nucleus
  • Cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes
  • Contain secretory granules
  • 150 to 400 x 109/L
  • Lifespan 5-20 days
157
Q

What is the function of RBCs?

A

Main function to transport O2 and CO2 - haemoglobin

158
Q

What are the features of RBCs?

A
  • 6.7-7.7 mm
  • Flexible, biconcave disc shaped cells
  • Maximum surface area for gas exchange
  • No nucleus or other internal organelles
  • 3.9 to 6.5 x 1012 cells/L
  • Lifespan ~120 days
  • ~45% of blood volume (haematocrit)

IMS Y1 v2 (14 decks)

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