Topic 2 - Approaches Flashcards
What is psychology ?
The scientific study of the human mind and behaviour
What is a science ?
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation.
What is introspection?
The process of observing and examining your own conscious thoughts or emotions. (Looking into)
What is empiricism?
All the knowledge of reality is gained from sensory experience.
What is inference?
Going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed.
What is classical conditioning?
Learning by association when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together- an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a neutral stimulus (NS). The neutral stimulus produces the same response as the UCS, now as a CR.
What is a stimulus?
Anything in the environment that causes a response.
What is a response?
Behaviour triggered by a stimulus in the environment.
What is operational conditioning?
Learning by consequence. Behaviour is acquired and maintained by its consequences (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment).
What is reinforcement?
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood that a behaviour is repeated.
What is punishment?
An unpleasant consequence that will result in the behaviour being less likely to be repeated
What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others.
What is a role model?
A person seen to posses similar characteristics to the observer and are admired for their achievement and have a high status.
What is identification?
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
What are mediations processes (ARMM) ?
These are cognitive processes that occur between a stimulus (role model’s behaviour) and a response (imitation). Attention, Retention, Motivation, Motor Reproduction.
What is vicarious/indirect reinforcement?
Reinforcement that occurs through observing someone else being rewarded for their behaviour. They are more likely to be motivated to imitate that behaviour.
What is an information processing computer model?
The mind is compared to a computer, suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed and stored.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of brain structures, mechanisms, and chemistry that are responsible for cognitive processes.
What is evolution?
The change over successive generations of the genetic make up of a particular population.
What is natural selection?
The process by which inherited characteristics that enhance an individual’s reproductive success are passed on to the next generation and become more widespread.
What is heredity?
The passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes.
What is heritability?
The amount of variability in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genes.
What is a gene?
A section of a chromosome that carries information as DNA.
What is the CNS?
A connected system that processes and stores information and issues orders to muscles and glands. The spinal cord bridges the gap between the brain and peripheral nerves.
What is a neuron?
Nerve cell
What is neurochemistry?
The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system.
What is the peripheral nervous system?
The PNS is a connected system that transmits information to and from the CNS comprising of the somatic and autonomic nervous system.
What is nature vs nurture?
Environment vs genetics
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies that involve a distortion of reality to protect our conscious mind from unpleasant emotions (e.g. anxiety) so we can cope with a situation
What is psychoanalysis?
The personality theory and therapy associated with Feud
What is the unconscious?
The part of the mind that contains repressed ideas that can’t be accessed by the conscious mind
What is the Tripartite personality?
Freud’s division of the kind into 3 structures - Ego, Id, SuperEgo
What are the psychosexual stages?
Freud’s stage theory which proposed that personality develops through a sequence of 5 stages which are driven by libido (need for pleasure)
What is the hierarchy of needs?
A motivational theory by Maslow (shown as the pyramid of needs). The most basic needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be met for a person to progress to meeting the higher needs at the top.
What is congruency?
The match between how you see yourself (perceived self) and how you would like to be seen (ideal self).
how closely 2 things overlap
Rogers suggested that self actualisation requires that a person’s self image is highly congruent with their ideal self
It is harder to self actualise if the gap is too big (low congruence)
What is unconditional positive regard?
When the love given by others is unconditional.
What are conditions of worth?
conditions that significant others put upon a person and they have to achieve these if they are to be loved.
if a person imposes conditions worth on themselves, self actualisation won’t work
this causes a low self esteem and worthlessness that won’t allow self actualisation
e.g. children whose parents have unconditional positive regard for them are more easily able to self actualise
Wundt :
- he used the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception
- he showed that introspection can be used to study mental states in replicable lab experiments
- he opened the first psychology lab in Germany
- his first textbook was the principles of physiological psychology
Introspection process
this is the systematic process of examining your own conscious thoughts and emotions in response to a stimuli
an experience was analysed in terms of its components (such as emotional reaction)
wundt strictly controlled the environments
highly trained observers were presented with controlled sensory events. they were then asked to describe their mental experiences to these events. the observers were replicated numerous times.
scientific approach based on which assumptions :
- behaviour has a cause (can be determined)
- behaviour can be predicted
- behaviour can be tested (in different conditions)
empirical methods :
- based on experience, not theory
- gathers data in an objective way (no bias)
- measures quantitative details so that patterns can be examined and inferences are credible
lab experiment :
- control of variables completely
- only one variable causes the effect on what they measure
- standardised procedures
- experiments are replicated by other researchers to test they are reliable
assumptions of the behaviourist approach :
- behaviourists argue that behaviour is learned through experience and interactions with the environment
- human behaviour is learnt through experience
- humans are born as ‘tabula rasa’ (a blank slate)
- only observable behaviour can be studied scientifically
- it is valid to study animals as they share the same principles of learning
stimulus response mechanisms:
a stimulus is applied to a subject and the subject’s behaviour is observed.
aim + method of Pavlov study :
lab experiment
he paired the presentation with food (naturally produced a saliva response reflex) with a number of different neutral stimuli (a bell).
UCS + NS = UCS
he repeated this pairing several times.
eventually he presented the NS in isolation of the UCS.
he inserted a small test tube into the dogs’ cheeks to measure salivation.
Pavlov findings :
a new behaviour has been learnt through making stimuli response associations.
- the dogs in his research would salivate before seeing food, meaning they had a temporal association between the person who gave them food and the food itself.
- the unconditioned stimulus (food) created an unconditioned response (salivation)
- the neutral stimulus (the bell) would ring and the dogs would receive food. the dogs learnt to associate that every time the bell would ring, they would be receiving food. this led to the neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned response (salivating to the sound of the bell)
John Watson
believed that we were born in a blank state, and he proposed classical conditioning being able to explain all aspects of human psychology.
he conducted a study to demonstrate that phobias could be learnt through classical conditioning.
he claimed that he conditioned a fear of white rats to a baby, Albert.
he striked a metal bar with a hammer to create a loud noise which startled Albert.
this was repeated alongside a white rat and the baby showed distressed when the rat was presented alongside other objects.
this suggests an association had taken place and a fear response learnt through classical conditioning.
Types of operant conditioning :
- positive reinforcement : receiving an award when a certain behaviour is performed
- negative reinforcement : to avoid something unpleasant
- punishment: unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Skinner’s research
studied the behaviour of rats and pigeons.
lab experiment, placing animals in a ‘skinner box’
controlled environment to study operant conditioning
- animals were placed in the box without any training beforehand.
- he observed how animals learned to operate levers to receive a reward (the food) or avoid punishment
Skinner’s procedure
- positive reinforcement: the rat moved in the box and knocked the lever, so it received food. he also tested what would happen if food stopped being released
- negative reinforcement : the rat in the box was subjected to an unpleasant electric current. when the rat moved in the box it would knock the lever, so the current would switch off.
Results of skinner’s research
he showed that behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow.
behaviours followed by rewarding consequences are more likely to be repeated, while the ones with unpleasant outcomes would be avoided.
the rat stopped the behaviour when the reinforcer (the food pellet) was removed.
the rat quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
what is extinction ?
if the reinforcing consequences stop, the person/animal will stop performing the behaviour
what is behaviour shaping ?
possible to train animals to perform complex behaviours through operant conditioning. the simple behaviours are rewarded, then the behaviours that are closer to the desired behaviour are rewarded.
Difference between classical and operant :
- classical is involuntary as the unconditioned responses are reflexes as they are automatic. in pavlovs research, the dog naturally salivates.
- operant is voluntary, as the individual produces a behaviour with an understanding that certain consequences may follow. the behaviours are produced to either get a reward or avoid punishment. in skinner’s research, the rat decides what to do based on its experience
- classical explains how responses are gained as a new stimuli develops through association. this is the initial learning phase.
- operant explains how responses are maintained as it is based on the reinforcements or punishment the individual receives.
assumptions of SLT
- Bandura suggested that behaviourism doesn’t take into account the cognitive aspects of learning, as humans have much more complex cognitive processes than animals.
- SLT isn’t a part of behaviourism
- proposes that behaviour is learned from the environment through observing role models.
- models provide examples of behaviour to observe and imitate
- it outlines how mental factors are involved in learning
direct reinforcement
the individual copies the role model’s behaviour and are rewarded or punished directly after.
cognitive mediational processes
- attention (more attention is payed to models we identify with)
- retention (stored in memory)
- motor reproduction (the observer should perform the behaviour for imitation to happen)
- motivational processes (vicarious reinforcement is positive reinforcement for behaviour)
observing a model perform the behaviour: stimuli
imitating the behaviour: response
motivational processes :
for a behaviour to be imitated the person should have the right motivation to do it.
if a person observes a role model being positively reinforced for a behaviour (vicarious reinforcement), the behaviour is likely to be imitated as the consequence of imitation suggests we will be directly reinforced ourselves.
the individual weighs up the chances of being directly reinforced.
they may display the observed behaviour if the expectation of positive consequences is greater than the negative ones.
Bandura procedure
aim : to see if the children would show more aggression if exposed to an aggressive role model.
72 children were split into 3 groups in even numbers.
3 conditions:
- aggressive: the children watched a video of an adult acting aggressively towards a doll and attacking it. (male and female role models) + aggressive statements
- non aggressive : children observed an adult assembling a toy, showing no aggression
- control: no model was observed
they were then taken to another room with toys and a doll to see how they would react. bandura observed and recorded the child play with the toys. bandura recorded imitative, partial imitation, and non imitative aggressions
Bandura findings
children who observed the aggressive model showed higher levels of aggression.
1. children were more likely to directly imitate same sex role models
2. boys showed more aggression in all conditions
conclusions : behaviour can be learnt through observing and imitating
individus are more likely to imitate role models they identify with.
in later versions of the study, children were more likely to imitate adults who were rewarded for their aggression. (vicarious reinforcement)
Cognitive approach assumptions :
- behaviour could be explained by internal mental processes (thoughts)
- conscious thoughts have an influence on behaviour
- mediational processes can occur between the stimulus and the response
- the information processing approach states that the mind acts similarly to a computer: 1. Input 2. Store 3. Retrieve data
- mental processes can be scientifically studied using laboratory experiments
Interferences.
- cognitive psychology focuses on how people interpret information processes such as perception and memory
- these mental processes CANT be studied directly since they can’t be observed. they are studied INDIRECTLY by inferring what goes on as a result of directly observed behaviour
- this leads to psychologists developing theories and models about mental processes
theoretical models
- they are simplified and objective representations of how mental processes might work
- they can be represented visually
- the information processing approach : suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a series of stages (input, store, retrieve data)
- the multi store model of memory includes : 1. Encoding sensory information 2. Information manipulation 3. Output (behaviour)
schemas :
- these are mental frameworks which contain knowledge based off of experience
- this organises information and acts as a guide to behaviour
- different schemas include : self schema (data about our personalities) or role schemas (ideas about the behaviour which is expected from someone in a certain role)
- a schema can affect how we interpret things and even how we make decisions
schemas advantages :
- they can predict the future : schemas are based on previous experiences so they allow us to make assumptions about what people will do in certain situations. these are often accurate as others act according to similar schemas (e.g. how a teacher acts)
- processing environmental information: schemas enable us to engage with the world without feeling overwhelmed by sensory information. assigning objects to a schema (like a chair) means we don’t have to always work out what each object is individually.
- schemas save time because you are taking shortcuts when you interpret large amounts of information quickly.
schemas disadvantages :
- inaccurate recall: assumptions due to schema can influence memory. people may feel that they are remembering something accurately yet their recall has been changed by leading questions. we can misremember something if it didn’t fit into our held schemas or we didn’t pay enough attention to it from the start.
- wrong shortcuts: this could lead to prejudice based on stereotypes
- we tend to pay more attention to information which fits our held schemas, which means we tend to ignore contradictory information so our views are challenged. (attentional biases)
Beck’s negative triad
- he sees depression’s roots as something that lies in traumatic childhood experiences, like rejection
- these bad experiences lead to negative schemas of the world and one’s self.
- expecting to fail in situation similar to those present when the schemas were learnt. these expectations could lead to depression
- cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is therefore used to identify someone’s negative schemas to help the person develop a more positive schema to help prevent negative thinking
Computer models :
- these are compared to the mind.
- computer models are software simulations of internal mental processes that are made in collaboration with computer scientists.
- these models use concepts of CPU (central processing unit), coding, and stores, to link the mind to a computer
- models have been shown to be useful in the advances of AI, which try to make computers simulate cognitive performances.
Cognitive neuroscience :
- it scientifically examines the neurological structures and chemical processes in the brain that are linked to internal mental processes.
- it uses scanning techniques to find the biological basis to cognitive processes in the brain.
- it uses fMRI and PET to help psychologists understand the brain, and how it can support different cognitive activity.
- fast advances in technology meant that neuroscientists are now able to study the brain and localise areas which are linked to specific cognition.
- e.g. Broca’s study showed that brain damage to the frontal lobe permanently impaires speech production
biological approach assumptions :
- behaviour can be largely explained in terms of biology (like by genes or hormones)
- human genes have evolved over millions of years to adapt behaviour to the environment. most behaviour has an adaptive purpose
- behaviour and processes can be explained by the structures and functions of the human nervous system (particularly the brain)
- it is the influence of genes, biological structures, and neuro chemistry on behaviour.
evolution and behaviour
darwin argued that over time organisms become adapted to their environment through biological evolution.
the mechanism behind this is natural selection. individuals compete for resources to survive. the ones who survive have more reproductive success then those who don’t.
these behaviours will be passed on to the offspring and will become more widespread in the population. through the process of natural selection, successive generations will develop behaviours that are more likely to lead to survival.
examples of evolutionary approach to psychology
- attachment by bowlby :
suggests that attachment is an innate (natural) system that is biologically programmed into babies from birth. this helps them survive.
he argued that human infants seek proximity. they develop a strong emotional bond with the mother early on during a crucial period so they can meet the biological needs of the infant and help them survive.
- psychopathology, phobias :
biological preparedness explains why many phobias don’t often develop as a consequence of traumatic incidents and can’t be explained through learning theories.
this also explains why people are more likely to develop phobias of ‘ancient fears’ which would have been threatening to our ancestors (like spiders instead of a modern threat like cars)
seligman argued that animals are genetically programmed to rapidly learn an association between potentially life threatening stimuli and fear.
genetics and behaviour
genes carry the instruction for a certain characteristic (like intelligence), but how that characteristic develops partially depends on the interaction of the gene with other genes, and how they interact with the environment
genotype and phenotype
genotype (genetic makeup inherited from parents) can only be known from studying a person’s genetic code since anything we observe is the phenotype (observable characteristics that depend on genes and the environment)
genetic basis of behaviour
heritability (how likely to is that a characteristic can be explained genetically) has been investigated through the studies of twins and families
the logical assumption: people who are closer related genetically are likely to share similar features
the most genetically similar people are twins since they are monozygotic (share 1 egg)
dizygotic (2 eggs) are non identical twins, siblings/parent- child, all share 50% of genes
intelligence (if genetic) is expected to lead to :
a perfect +1 correlation between identical twins
a strong positive +0.5 correlation for those sharing 50% of genes
Bouchard et al
conducted a meta analysis of studies, exploring the role of genetics in intelligence.
he found that identical twins had a concordance rate of 86%. the fact that they don’t have a perfect 100% concordance rate suggests that genes aren’t the only factors that influence intelligence, and that there are environmental factors involved.
e.g. identical twins together 86%
identical twins apart 72%
Nervous system :
it is compromised of several connected systems.
the CNS comprises of the brain + spinal cord
the PNS compromises of the somatic and automatic nervous systems.
the nervous system carries messages from one part of the body to another, using neurons (nerve cells)
neurotransmitters send electrical signals from one neurone to the next across the body. this controls many aspects of behaviour (like eating or even sleeping)
types of neurotransmitters
- excitatory neurotransmitters : trigger nerve impulses and stimulate the brain into action
- inhibitory neurotransmitters : inhibit nerve impulses to calm the brain and balance mood. (serotonin stabilises mood)
the brain :
2 hemispheres, 4 lobes
lobes:
1. temporal
2. parietal
3. frontal
4. occipital
the back of the brain (below the occipital lobe) is the cerebellum
the hemispheres are connected by nerve fibres called the corpus callosum
Sperry’s research
sperry’s research on split brain research gives evidence that the 2 hemispheres have specialised functions.
- research shows there are important localised structures within the brain that have functions (hypothalamus and hippocampus)
- the clive wearing case study (long term memory problems) showed how a virus damaged his hippocampus (which stores memories)
neural plasticity
shows how the brain can change and adapt as a result of experience and can recover functions from a damaged area of the brain.
types of brain scans
- PET scans: shows which parts of the brain are active during different activities, or when thinking of certain things
- CAT scans: detects damaged parts of the brain (tumours, blood clots…) brain STRUCTURE rather than function is shown
endocrine system
it works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in the body.
various glands produce hormones
- hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine cells
- they are released when people are under stress, like adrenaline
- androgens and oestrogens are sex hormones that are associated with behaviour, like agression
- androgen levels in males are higher than in females
- oestrogen levels in females are higher than in males
- crucial in gender development!
psychodynamic approach main concepts
- Freud suggested our behaviour and feelings are greatly impacted by our unconscious motives
- our behaviour and feelings as adults (and psychological problems) are based off of our childhood experiences
- personality is split into 3 parts : the id, the ego, the superego
- the 3 personalities are always in conflict with each other
paychodeterminism
all behaviour has a cause
mind is made up of 3 parts
- the conscious
- the pre conscious
- the unconscious (biggest part of our personality)
role of the unconscious :
Freud believed that there was a part of our mind that was inaccessible to conscious thoughts- the unconscious
he believed that most of our daily actions are not controlled consciously, but are the product of the unconscious mind
he believed that the mind prevents traumatic memories from the unconscious reaching the conscious awareness. this could cause anxiety, so our mind uses defence mechanisms (prevent us from feeling pain and distorts reality)
3 defence mechanism
- repression : the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts. these still influence behaviour without us knowing (a child who was abused by his parents may not remember this, but could have trouble in forming relationships)
- denial : the refusal to accept reality. avoiding to deal with painful feelings that may be associated with that event (a person may deny a traumatic event from happening to them, but everyone around them thinks they are being bizarre)
- displacement : redirecting our thoughts and feelings elsewhere in situations where the person is unable to express themselves to the person they should be directed towards (taking out anger on someone else)
sublimation
substituting one behaviour for anothern
Freud tripartite personality theory
- this is divided into 3 structures, each of which demands gratification yet is always in conflict with other parts
- the id: operates in the unconscious (pleasure principle). it drives us to satisfy selfish urges
- the ego: the mediator between the id and the super ego (reality principle). acts rationally
- the superego: internal state of right and wrong (morality principle). punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt, formed around the age of 5.
Freud psychosexual stages
first 5 years are crucial in the formation of our adult personality.
personality develops in 5 stages.
the id has to be in control during the stages to satisfy social demands.
the ego and super ego develop to control the id and direct the need for gratification into socially acceptable channels.
frustration leads to fixation at a specific stage, being fixated on one of these staged would restrict full development.
Oedipus complex
occurs at the phallic stage.
boys develop a sexual attraction towards their mother during this stage and a hatred of their father.
humanistic approach main assumptions
- shows the free will of an individual
- this is an idiographic approach, since each person is unique , rather than general rules being identified for human behaviour (not an objective approach)
- each person should be viewed holistically
free will :
it is a philosophical view that humans are able to make choices on their own, without being controlled by biological or environmental influences
these free will decisions lead to self actualisation
self actualisation
humans have a desire to achieve self actualisation (fulfilling your full potential)
humanistic psychologists characterised self actualisation in distinct ways:
1. Maslow : hierarchy of needs (top includes achievement of full potential)
2. Rogers : having unconditional positive regard and achieving congruence between self concept and ideal self
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
involves satisfying 5 levels in a hierarchy of needs
bottom level : physiological needs (food + water)
lower levels : deficiency needs (person needs to address these needs before they can self actualise)
top level: self actualisation
Maslow believes into 1% of people truly achieve self actualisation (he gave an example of Einstein as someone who has self actualised)
Rogers
his views of self actualisation builds on Maslow’s hierarchy
he suggested that self actualisation involves unconditional positive regard and congruence (difference between how a person sees themself and the ideal version of themself)
Counselling in psychology
the approach has been influential on counselling therapy (originated with Rogers)
the core qualities of a good counselling therapist are :
- genuine : therapists won’t be incongruent with their real personalities
- unconditional positive regard : therapists should accept the client with no judgement
- empathy : therapists try to understand the client’s view
aim of the therapy: to increase congruence and eventually help clients to self actualise
