Topic 2

Question 1

why did black Americans fight for civil rights?

Answer 1

• they faced segregation, discrimination and violence at the time of the end of WWI
• in the South, discrimination was enshrined in law. In the North and the West discrimination was far more casual but still severe
• they were last hired and first fired and were also payed the least
• their low pay meant that many could only afford to live in certain run-down areas, forming ghettos
• there were about 25 anti-black race riots in 1919 - the worst was in Chicago, not even the south

Question 2

what was life in the south like?

Answer 2

• with slavery gone, white southerners felt less in control
• Jim Crow laws segregated every aspect of day to day life - separate public facilities, schools, shops etc
• many workplaces segregated their workers
• restrictions on certain aspects were placed FOR EXAMPLE voters were required to pass a literacy test to vote (many black people did not know how to read nor write as they never attended school) -> this led to a 99% drop in black voters (in Louisiana)

Question 3

what was common in the south and who instigated it?

Answer 3

lynchings, KKK

Question 4

how many black men were lynched between 1915-30?

Answer 4

579

Question 5

how many supporters did the KKK have in 1925?

Answer 5

8,000,000

Question 6

federal intervention in southern discrimination.

Answer 6

• black ppl lost political power as their voting rights were restricted
• the federal gov itself hindered black equality -> in 1896 Plessy vs Ferguson ruled that the principle ‘separate but equal’ was constitutional
• President Wilson supported segregation (was a southerner)
• harding did speak out against lynchings and was generally in favour of civil rights but could not do much as he was a republican who followed laissez faire
• once the depression hit the gov lost its focus on civil rights

Question 7

Migration reasons + main points.

Answer 7

• The Great migration took place from the South to the North and the East
• Black migrants moved to industrial cities like NYC, Detroit, Philadelphia, Chicago -> more work was available + less severe discrimination
• workers were needed in the north
• when they migrated they had low-paid jobs, housing was of poor quality and the rents were higher than what a white would be charged
• most black people continued to live difficult lives although they had migrated

Question 8

the effects of migration

Answer 8

• population increases in the northern cities
• black ppl could become elected politicians
• ghettoisation gave black voters representation
• politicians began to listen to black voters’ demands once they realised the size of the black electorate - it kept the mayor of Chicago in power in 1919
• in the south the Labour force shrunk and there was a tendency to assume that those who stayed were accepting the Jim Crow and that the others had voted with their feet

Question 9

The new deal (FDR)

Answer 9

• black voters switched from the Republican Party (which had abolished slavery) to the Democratic Party (which proposed the new deal)
• he issued the Executive Order 8802 at the start of the war, banning racial segregation in the defence industry in order to get people working in it to produce important war goods
• the Deal was supposedly colour-blind but whites were usually prioritised on New Deal initiatives, sometimes displacing blacks
• social security provisions of the new deal did not apply to farm or domestic workers -> both groups were dominated by black workers
• NRA set the minimum wage equally
• since black people were usually very poor they did manage to benefit from the deal

Question 10

protesting against the New Deal

Answer 10

• they protested against discrimination under the new Deal programmes
• they were supported by communists
• communist lawyers took case of nine black men accused of raping two white girls -> the men were found as not guilty
• in Alabama there were 6 black NAACP members and over 3000 black communists
• northern communists demanded equality for all workers
• association with communist groups gave opponents of civil rights another weapon to use against the protestors
• as the depression in 1937 hit, black workers were hit the hardest as they received less help
• in 1939, 2,000,000 people signed a petition requesting federal aid to move to africa

Question 11

community groups

Answer 11

• black Churches set up support systems for the black community during the depression
• some shops and restaurants were set up to sell food cheaper than white owned stores did to black ppl
• women’s organisations were set up such as Housewives Leagues that began in Detroit and soon spread. They mounted ‘Don’t Buy Where You Can’t Work’ campaigns to boycott stores in black districts until they hired black workers

Question 12

WWII (gains)

Answer 12

• Randolph threatened a 100,000 strong march on Washington if Roosevelt didn’t ban discrimination in the army and defence factories -> Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, setting up Fair Employment Practices Commission to oversee a ban on discrimination in wartime industry
• Migration was even faster than that of the 1920s
• black ppl working alongside white ppl helped counter some white ppl’s prejudice -> this helped create a more supportive atmosphere for post war civil rights campaigns

Question 13

WWII (same)

Answer 13

• black workers benefitted less from the wartime boom
• Fair Employment Practices Commission was implemented patchily
• the migration was resented by many whites -> 1943 saw strikes and violence against having to work alongside blacks

Question 14

President Truman

Answer 14

• Truman supported civil rights-> he proposed laws against lynchings, segregation and unfair employment practices (Congress however obstructed these and Truman was not that determined)
• Truman set up the President’s Committee on civil rights in 1946 which called for equal opportunities in employment and housing and urged federal support for civil rights, leading Truman to try again in vain to get congressional support
• Truman became more concerned with foreign affairs than domestic one as the Cold War developed
• Truman desegregated the military in 1948 as well as all work carried out for the gov

Question 15

changing tactics

Answer 15

• the tactic used by civil rights protestors (CRP) depended on time, place, circumstances, those involved and public support
• sometimes non-violent protest was used: pickets, boycotts, sit-ins, protests
• sometimes cases were taken before the courts In order to have black rights upheld
• groups were set up to organise such action - like the NAACP
• smaller local organisations were set up - often by Churches
• membership of groups like the NAACP grew during the wars - 9,000 in 1917 to 600k in 1946

Question 16

Legal challenges

Answer 16

• NAACP argued that ‘separate but equal’ was not equal
• NAACP provided lawyers for blacks who had been unfairly accused
• NAACP won some cases in 1930 and all in 1950
• A White Citizens’ Council was formed in 1954 to fight desegregation -> it had 250k followers in 1956
• Brown v Topeka Board of Education ruled that segregated schooling could never be ‘equal’
• > no timeframe was set for change : ‘with all deliberate speed’ (ten years after only 1/100 black child was in an integrated school)

Question 17

direct action

Answer 17

• NAACP stepped up direct action as its membership grew
• local protests became frequent, CORE (congress of racial equality) organised sit-ins in the northern cities to desegregate public facilities

Question 18

non-violent protests

Answer 18

• rules for peaceful protest: dress well, not loud, not abusive, didn’t fight back if attacked
• protests were used to attract attention
• the idea of the peaceful protests was to show that demonstrators supported the gov and wanted support in return

Question 19

montgomery bus-boycott

Answer 19

• two young black women were arrested for refusing to move in 1955 -> but were not considered respectable, despite ppl saying the case should have been taken up
• Rosa Parks was arrested, she was a respectable 42 year old woman -> her case was taken up by NAACP
• Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was formed to organise a boycott, led by MLK
• leaflets and meetings were held to publicise the arrest and the boycott
• over 75% of bus-users were black and 90% of them boycotted -> the boycott lasted for 380 days
• MLK was imprisoned and taxi drivers were penalised for taking fares
• with the publicity Montgomery was receiving the Supreme Court had to act -> it ruled bus segregation as unconstitutional and the boycott ended few days after
• the antagonism did not end: snipers shot black bus passengers and black ppl’s homes, however the Supreme Court acted and supported the blacks

Question 20

MLK

Answer 20

• very media conscious
• he set up the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and refined non-violence to give it the best possible impression in the media

Question 21

Little Rock 1957

Answer 21

-9 black children were selected to apply to the central high school in Little Rock
-schools had been desegregated since 1954 due to Brown vs Board of Education
-the governor of Arkansas, Faubus, was a racist, and he sent the national guard to stop the children from entering the school for ‘their own safety’
-one student was not in the car and was surrounded by a screaming mob shouting ‘Lynch her’ -> the media reported this
-Eisenhower reluctantly sent in federal troops to guard the children, who were subject to threats and violence for years ->
Faubus responded by closing the school (reopening it eventually)

Question 22

Greensboro, North Carolina 1960

Answer 22

• 4 black students organised a sit-in by waiting to be served at a lunch counter
• they were not served
• the next day they came back and were joined by 30 more
• white youths pelted the protestors with food and abused them
• the media reported images of calm peaceful black protestors being abused by the rowdy white louts

Question 23

the student non violent coordinating committee (SNCC)

Answer 23

• the SNCC was set up in 1960
• it was racially integrated and believed in non-violent direct action
• it sent out ‘field secretaries’ to live in dangerous areas of the south
• they were to encourage voter registration
• the SNCC took non-violent protests to places where violence was likely to be used against them

Question 24

freedom riders, 1961

Answer 24

• CORE and SNCC carried out tests of desegregation of bus restroom facilities as they should’ve been following the ruling
• the aim was to get the gov to enforce the law - not just change it
• the first two buses were attacked and riders beaten up at stops
• another was bombed after being chased by cars, some police cars in Alabama

Question 25

Birmingham, 1963

Answer 25

• nicknamed: ‘Bombingham’ due to the regular bombing of black homes, businesses and churches
• King and SCLC pushed to desegregate the entire town in 1963
• protestors carried patriotic messages about the American dream
• the jails were full by the end of the month (April) and the police chief, Connor, ordered water cannon and dogs to be used
• Kennedy admitted he felt ashamed and sent deferral troops in may
• birmingham was desegregated
• MLK’s famous ‘I have a dream’ speech was made at the march in Washington

Question 26

Freedom summer, 1964

Answer 26

• an election year and the SNCC pushed for voter registration
• most volunteers to go to south were white and able to pay their own way (bail money)
• the first group was sent in June to Mississippi and three (two of whom were white) went missing the following day - they were found dead few weeks later
• 17,000 black ppl applied to register to vote that year but only 1,600 were accepted

Question 27

black militancy groups etc

Answer 27

black power, riots, the northern crusade

Question 28

black power

Answer 28

-Carmichael, leader of SNCC, set up the Lowndes Country Freedom Organisation in 1965 to give black voters someone to vote for
the group used the panther symbol
-once the first black student marched at the uni of Mississippi was shot, Carmichael saw non-violence wasn’t working
-he said that that the civil rights movement should radicalise and use the shout ‘Black Power’
-this salute was famous and was even used by famous athletes at the 68’ Olympics
-the movement split - there were no more marches co-organised by the different CR groups
-Black Power/Panthers became a militant group, carrying guns -> this attracted ppls’ attention rather than the community work they did, like providing free breakfast for school children

Question 29

riots

Answer 29

• there were major riots in NYC, Chicago and Philadelphia 1964, each set off by police brutality
• riots then took place every year until 1971
• the impacts of the riots was to make gov intervention against the violence acceptable. images of blacks protesting peacefully were replaced by black rioters throwing petrol bombs

Question 30

the northern crusade

Answer 30

• MLK began to focus on the North from 65’ onwards, visiting the ghettos in the northern cities
• he announced his ‘northern crusade’ in 66’ to improve slums and working conditions
• the campaign began in Chicago -mayor Daley denied the existence of ghettos where 800,000 black ppl lived
• momentum petered out - king claimed significant gains but others called it a failure as there was little long-term change
• his Poor People’s Campaign go 67’ began with a march in Washington. He then led a strike of sanitation workers in Memphis where he was assassinated

Question 31

what were the two main pieces for legislation?

Answer 31

• civil rights act 1964 - banned racial or gender discrimination in hiring, firing and promoting: the Equal Opportunities Commission was set up to enforce this
• Voting Rights Act - banned any attempt to stop someone from voting because of their race and made provision for five years of federal enforcement

Question 32

Achievements (black ppl)

Answer 32

• black Americans were full citizens in 1980, just as they were in 1917
• there was more federal pressure to make change actually happen e.g. executive orders
• black American upper/middle classes developed, tending to be based in northern cities that modelled on white society
• there were some black politicians
• more black voters
• the socio-economic situation improved for many - more home ownership, more black graduates

Question 33

limits to success (black ppl)

Answer 33

• the passing of the CRA and Via made some feel like the issue was dealt with
• some whites resented affirmative action while some employers saw it as a maximum as well as a minimum
• vietnam war began to overshadow civil rights
• the situation of the poorest had declined with more sliding into poverty
• the massive social problems of the ghettos remained - unemployment, crime, gang culture, school drop-outs

Question 34

native Americans (NA) (background)

Answer 34

-their rights had been an issue for hundreds of years
-gov policies managed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
-Roosevelt reversed the trend of assimilation under his Indian Reorganisation Act but wanted tribes run in a ‘constitutional’ way - under tribal councils etc
-after Roosevelt, assimilation became policy again and the BIA encouraged Native Americans to move into towns and cities, offering training and housing - but this would mean the end of their culture
-the House passed a resolution for ‘termination’ - many resisted this and under a later ruling it required a tribe’s consent
(termination= tribes moved to federal/state laws and lands held in by the govt sold)

Question 35

the issues (NA)

Answer 35

• tribal homelands: many had been removed from their lands under the Indian removal act of 1830. The federal gov made treaties with the tribes that were accepted to be unfair. Many NAs wanted new treaties and a return to their old land if possible
• self-determination: the tribes were independent nations under federal gov, running their own affairs supervised by the BIA. The BIA had implemented regulations very heavy-handedly over the years and set up ‘boarding schools’ to force European culture on children, destroying culture. Years of antagonism had made NAs very distrustful of the BIA

Question 36

Organised protests (NA)

Answer 36

• the Indian civil rights act of 68’ banned tribes from restricting the civil rights of tribe members but didn’t help redress any issues NAs had with the gov
• the American Indian movement (AIM) was set up in 68’. its members were mostly urban ppl
• the other group was the national congress of American Indians (NCAI) but this operated within the system -AIM took a more radical anti-federal stance and used the slogan ‘Red Power’
• The AIM organised protests, sit-ins, occupations - they targeted the land they saw as theirs and also demeaning of their culture by white ppl

Question 37

gains of NA

Answer 37

• Nixon sympathised with them
• nixon rejected assimilation and forced termination
• indian education act, Indian financing act, Indian self determination act, an extension to the voting right act
• indian child welfare act
• land at blue lake was returned and 40 million acres + $425m was given in 71’
• land returns continued as a dribble throughout the 70s

Question 38

limitations NA

Answer 38

• the BIA was not reformed at any point
• there was no negotiation over sacred NA sites
• there was no settlement on evictions and states continued to do this - Hawaii continued to evict if the state wanted land

Question 39

hispanic Americans (HA) background

Answer 39

• nixon was the first politician to use ‘hispanic’
• Puerto ricans tended to live in poor areas of northern cities
• cubans tended to live in florida
• mexicans tended to settle in the boarder states: California and Texas, often working the land
• the bracero programme guaranteed incoming workers the same wages as existing workers but this didn’t always work as other farm workers resented Mexican immigration for ‘taking their jobs’

Question 40

Issues HA

Answer 40

• land: the Mexican-american war ended with a treaty of Guadeloupe-Hidalgo. Mexican citizens living in the new American land became American citizens. land in New Mexico became a focus of protest
• workers’ rights: hispanic farm workers, especially those in the bracero programme, were often heavily exploited by their employers and worked on a ‘take it or leave it’ basis. There were no unions and illegal labour to replace workers
• discrimination: hispanics lived in inner-city barrios. like African Americans, these areas were often poorly served by public services
• deportation: the US immigration services deported millions of hispanic ppl (3.8 million by Operation Wetback)

Question 41

Fighting for rights HA

Answer 41

• chavez fought a campaign for warm workers’ rights, focusing on conditions. he set up a union and organised strikes, marches and protests. he also fasted and held rallies in hispanic areas
• Gutierrez’s La Raza Unida party set out to encourage Hispanics to register to vote and then provide candidates to vote for. it campaigned for housing and so on
• the brown berets were a militant organisation set up and they worked along the lines of the black panthers and campaigned against police brutality

Question 42

gains HA

Answer 42

• the cuban American adjustment act made cubans who had lived for a year permanent residents - no other group was offered this
• Equal Opportunities Act made provision for bilingual teaching in schools
• Voting rights act extension provided language assistance at polling stations
• civil rights campaigns did produce local changes: Chavez made a difference for farm workers, e.g

Question 43

limitations HA

Answer 43

• changes varied from place to place and the poor situation remained in many places
• legal acceptance of hispanic rights was slow coming - hispanic legal equality wasn’t held by supreme court until 1954

Question 44

gay rights (GR) background

Answer 44

• gay ppl were not a race
• their invisibility made some fearful, just as if they were communists
• much discrimination took place by refusing to serve gay costumers
• congress called homosexuality a mental illness in 1950s
• one problem campaigners faced was that legislation was a state matter and not a federal one - lots of campaigns needed
• homosexuality was not decriminalised across the entire country until 2003

Question 45

gay rights movement

Answer 45

• the nypd periodically raided the Stonewall INN in Greenwich for supposed violence violations but everyone knew it was because it was a gay bar
• in 1969, violence broke out and about 400 fought back
• the gay liberation front was set up and peaceful protests took place
• there had been opposition to the discrimination but after the stonewall the campaign became more coherent. 10,000 marched in NYC in 70’

Question 46

taking to the streets (GR)

Answer 46

• groups sprung across the USA. many joined the national gay liberation front or set up their own campaigns
• campaigners took advantage of the liberal climate of 1960s and 70s
• San Francisco, NYC and Seattle formed counter-culture communities
• americans increasingly discovered that gay ppl were in fact normal ppl
• in 77’, 55% supported the equal rights for gays even though groups like KKK and others continued their hostility to gay ppl

Question 47

success (GR)

Answer 47

• the mid late 70s were in many ways the heyday of the movement
• the first openly gay public official was elected in 74’
• milk was elected in San Francisco in 77’ - he supported other civil rights causes as well as opposed Proposition 6, a state move to fire gay reaches who spoke out in favour of gay rights. he was assassinated in 79’

Question 48

gains (GR)

Answer 48

• governor of California appointed four state judges between 79-81
• a teenage boy in Rhode Island won the right to take male date to prom in 80’

Question 49

limitations (GR)

Answer 49

• the save our children (SOC) initiative was set up in Florida in 77’ to oppose a law to ban discrimination in housing and public facilities -> rejected
• briggs initiative 6 came from the Social campaign -> rejected
• the religious right became increasingly powerful as conservatism grew, gaining a support from president Reagan