Topic 19: Prosocial Behaviour

Question 1

What is prosocial behaviour?

Answer 1

Voluntary acts intended to benefit others.
They may also have a benefit to the prosocial actor - so can be motivated by self interest.

Question 2

What are examples of prosocial behaviour?

Answer 2

Giving/sharing
Cooperating/collaborating
Comforting/consoling

Question 3

Why is ‘helping’ different from prosocial behaviour?

Answer 3

• Because helping can be a form of prosocial behaviour hence both terms used interchangeably but:
  helping can be antisocial - e.g. giving help so others look incompetent/inferior (overhelping)

Question 4

What are the types of prosocial behaviour?

Answer 4

Altruism = benefiting others without (conscious) regard for one’s self interest

Reciprocal altruism = benefiting others with the expectation that they will return the benefit in the future.

Question 5

What is a big scientific challenge (in the lab) when we look at prosocial behaviour?/ Why is it hard to find ways to study prosocial behaviour that is ecologically valid?

Answer 5

It is ideal to study prosociality under controlled conditions in the lab BUT, prosociality studies can induce:
- social desirability effects = participants do what they feel is the most desirable action
- demand characteristics = participants do what they feel is expected of them

Question 6

How have psychologists tried to overcome concerns of social desirability and demand characteristics in a lab setting? (increase ecological validity?)

Answer 6

studying it in the real world for instance, the good samaritan study.

Question 7

What are the three broad classes of psychological theories?

Answer 7

• Biological (nature)
• Social (nurture)
• Biosocial (nature and nurture)

All can be the cause of prosocial behaviour

Question 8

What is are examples of a psychological theory of prosocial behaviour?

Answer 8

Nature:
- There is an innate need to be prosocial
- Prosociality has survival value

Nurture:
- Humans learn prosociality
- Prosociality is learnt depending on how much it leads to rewards/benefits, costs/punishments.

Bisocial:
- Biological factors have predisposed humans to act prosocially towards conspecifics
- But, when and how an individual engages in prosocial behaviour in their daily life depends on their own learning history and personal circumstances

Question 9

What is the social exchange theory of prosociality?

Answer 9

Much prosocial behaviour can be described as a social transaction between people (who exchange rewards and costs)
Exchanged rewards/cost can be external (e.g. gain or loss of money, time, gratefulness, social approval, reputation etc.) and/or internal (e.g. gain or loss of self-worth, guilt)

Question 10

What factors is a person’s weighing of rewards and costs affected by?

Answer 10

Cultural factors
Situational factors
Personality

Question 11

What is an example of the social exchange theory?

Answer 11

Blood Donation
Volunteers weigh the costs of donating or not against the benefits of doing it or not
Potential Costs Donating: needle prick, time, fatigue
Potential Costs Not-Donating: guilt, social disapproval
Potential Benefits Donating: feeling good about helping, free refreshments
Potential Benefits Not Donating: saving time, no discomfort

Question 12

What are cultural factors in relation to weighing costs and benefits of engaging in a prosocial activity?

Answer 12

Variation exists in cultural norms on:
- what constitutes prosocial behaviour
- how willingly it is given

This variation can be studied using cross cultural studies on prosocial behaviour.

Question 13

What is an example of a cross cultural study on prosocial behaviour?

Answer 13

Levine et al 2001
Confederates would require help due to:
Dropping a pen
Dropping magazines while limping with an injured leg
Feigning blindness when approaching a crossing
Findings:
Those dropping a pen in Rio were four times more likely to be helped than those doing so in New York

Question 14

What situational factors are there in relation to weighing costs and benefits of engaging in a prosocial activity?

Answer 14

Prosocial models: helping is more likely when one has just seen someone else engage in helping

Time pressure: helping is less likely when people are in a rush

Mood: feel good - do good

Empathy: the more empathy we have for someone, the more we are willing to help, our degree of empathy often depends on how similar someone is/looks to us

Social attributions: believing that someone’s need for help was not due to his/her own negligence

Rural environment: in small towns more help given than in large cities

Social norms: helping is more likely in situations that remind people of helping-related norms, such as the reciprocity norm (reminds us to balance giving and receiving in social relations) and social-responsibility norm (reminds us to help those who need help)

Question 15

What is the role of personality in relation to weighing costs and benefits of engaging in a prosocial activity?

Answer 15

Personality influences on prosocial behaviour most likely when costs of helping are high, but situational pressures to help are weak.

The following aspects of a person’s personality can matter:
Machiavellianism: willingness to exploit and manipulate others to achieve one’s own goals (reduces prosociality)

Trait empathy: ability and willingness to put oneself in the shoes of others to experience events and emotions as they do (enhances prosociality)

Agreeableness: a person’s general tendency to be warm, friendly and tactful as well as to get along well with others (enhances prosociality)

Question 16

Does sex/gender affect prosocial behaviour?

Answer 16

Often affects type of prosocial behaviour, but not willingness and/or frequency per se.

Men offer more help in potentially dangerous situations e.g. fall in a subway, women offer more nurturing help e.g. charity work.

Question 17

Who is most likely to receive help?

Answer 17

Identifiable victim > group
Children > adults
Attractive > unattractive people
Women > men

Question 18

What is the bystander effect?

Answer 18

Describes when numerous people fail to help stranger in an emergency situation
Demonstrated by John Darley and Bibb Latané in 1968

Question 19

What is the five step model of the bystander effect?

Answer 19

Does person notice the incident (yes/no)?
Do person interpret it as an emergency (yes/no)?
Does person assume responsibility to help (yes/no)?
Does the person know how to help (yes/no)?
Does person decide to help (yes/no)?

Question 20

What are the typical barriers at step 3 of the bystander effect?

Answer 20

Diffusion of Responsibility: individuals feel diminished responsibility for their actions because they are surrounded by others who are acting in the same way.

Pluralistic Ignorance: people fail to accurately evaluate other people’s behaviour (and come to the conclusion that certain actions are appropriate even though they are not).

Question 21

What did a meta-analyses on the bystander effect suggest?

Answer 21

Findings suggest that three main factors reduce the bystander effect (and encourage more helping):

• When situation is clearly perceived as dangerous
• When situation allows for (obvious) physical intervention
• When situation involves presence of perpetrators (as they signal an unambiguous cause for the situation)

Question 22

What are evidence-based suggestions on how to increase Prosocial Behaviour?

Answer 22

Model prosocial behaviour (nurture matters! Situational reminders matter!)

Reduce ambiguity (make it clear whether help/support is needed or not)

Increase responsibility (make people feel responsible to show prosocial behaviour)

Remind people of their altruistic ideal (many people have them but may not have them accessible due to situational distractions)

Alert people to relevant behaviour (prosociality is more likely when people know what exactly they can do, rather than having to come up with their own ideas)

Praise prosocial behaviour (most people care about their self-image as being prosocial)

Teach inclusivity (so that people include those different from themselves into the circle of people they are willing to act prosocially towards.