Topic 1 -Theories Of Religion

Question 1

What is a belief ?

Answer 1

A belief is what someone considers true , or in existence , without any definitive proof

Question 2

What is a religion ?

Answer 2

A religion is a structured , organised and definitive set of beliefs , shared by everyone within that religion

Question 3

What are the 3 main ways in which sociologists define religion ?

Answer 3

-Substantive definitions
-functional definitions
-constructionist definitions

Question 4

What do substantive definitions of religion involve ?

Answer 4

Substantive definitions focus on the content or substance of the religious belief , such as a belief in God or the supernatural.

Question 5

What is weber’s substantive definition of religion ?

Answer 5

Weber - religion is the belief in a superior or supernatural power that cannot be scientifically explained

Question 6

What do functional definitions of religion involve ?

Answer 6

Functional definitions focus on the social or psychological functions religion performs for individuals or society

Question 7

How does Durkheim contribute to the functional definition of religion ?

Answer 7

Durkheim defines religion in terms of its contribution to social integration rather than any specific belief in god or the supernatural

Question 8

How does Yinger contribute to the functional definition of religion ?

Answer 8

Yinger identifies functions that religion performs for individuals , such as answering ultimate questions about the meaning of life and what happens when we die

Question 9

What is an advantage of the functional definition of religion ?

Answer 9

-An advantage of the functional definition is that its an inclusive definition - allowing us to include a wide range of beliefs and practices that perform different functions
-another advantage is since they do not specify belief in a god or the supernatural there is no bias against others

Question 10

What do constructionist definitions of religion involve ?

Answer 10

Constructionist definitions of religion focus on how individuals define religion and therefore it is not possible to have one definition meaning religion isn’t always the belief in one God.

Question 11

What is an example by Aldridge of a constructionist definition of religion focus?

Answer 11

Aldridge - Scientology is a religion for its members but the government don’t class it as an actual religion

Question 12

Functionalism - what does Durkheim believe the purpose of religion is ?

Answer 12

Durkheim believe religions purpose is to maintain the value consensus , order and solidarity.

Question 13

Functionalism - what does Durkheim believe is the key feature of religion ?

Answer 13

For Durkheim , the key feature of religion was the fundamental distinction between the sacred and the profane which are found in all religions

Question 14

Functionalism - what does Durkheim mean by the sacred ?

Answer 14

The sacred - things set apart and forbidden , that inspire feelings of awe , fear and wonder

Question 15

Functionalism - what does Durkheim mean by the profane ?

Answer 15

The profane - things that have no special significance- things that are ordinary and mundane

Question 16

Functionalism - what did Durkheim find about totemism ?

Answer 16

For Durkheim ,when clan members worship their totemic animal , they are in reality worshipping society - even though they themselves aren’t aware of this fact.

Question 17

Functionalism - For Durkheim what do sacred symbols represent and what is this ?

Answer 17

Sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience
Collective conscience - is the shared norms , values , beliefs and knowledge that makes social life and cooperation between individuals possible - without these society would disintegrate

Question 18

Functionalism - For Durkheim what reinforces collective conscience ?

Answer 18

Regular shared rituals reinforce the collective conscience as it binds individuals together

Question 19

Functionalism- what does Durkheim mean by the cognitive functions of religion ?

Answer 19

Durkheim sees religion as a source of our cognitive capacities
For example , in order to think we need categories such as time , space , cause , substance , number etc. And secondly , in order to share our thoughts we need to use the same categories as others

Question 20

Functionalism - Evaluation of Durkheim , Include Worsley and postmodernist - Mestrovic ?

Answer 20

-Worsley - no sharp distinction between the sacred and the profane which, different clans share the same totems
-doesn’t apply to large scale societies with multiple conflicting religions
-Postmodernist -Mestrovic - Durkheim’s theory cannot be applied to current day society and there is no longer a single shared value system for religion to reinforce

Question 21

Functionalism - what does Malinowski believe the purpose of psychological functions of religion are ?

Answer 21

Malinowski believes religion promotes social solidarity by performing psychological functions for individuals , helping them to cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity

Question 22

Functionalism - what are the 2 types of situations in which religion performs the role regarding psychological functions ?

Answer 22

1.where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and uncertain
2.At times of life crisis

Question 23

Functionalism - how does Malinowski explain the psychological functions where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and uncertain ?

Answer 23

In Malinowski’s study he contrasts fishing in the lagoon and fishing in the ocean.
-Lagoon fishing - is safe and uses the predictable and successful methods of poisoning . When the islanders fish in the lagoon , there is no ritual
-Ocean fishing - is dangerous and uncertain and is always accompanied by rituals to ensure a safe and successful expedition. This gives people a sense of control , which eases tension , gives them confidence to undertake hazardous tasks and reinforces group solidarity

Question 24

Functionalism - how does Malinowski explain the psychological function where religion performs the role at times of life crisis ?

Answer 24

Events such as births , puberty , marriage and death mark major and disruptive changes in social groups . Religion helps to minimise disruption .
For example , funeral rituals reinforce a feeling of solidarity among the survivors , while the notion of immortality gives comfort to the bereaved by denying the fact of death.
In fact , Malinowski argues that death is the main reason for the existence of religious belief

Question 25

Functionalism - what does Parsons sees religion as helping individuals ?

Answer 25

Parsons sees religion as helping individuals to cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable events

Question 26

Functionalism - what are 2 other essential functions that religion performs in modern society according to Parsons ?

Answer 26

2 other essential that religion performs in modern society according to Parsons ; - it creates and legitimates society’s central values -its the primary source of meaning

Question 27

Functionalism - How does Parsons sees religion as creating and legitimating society’s basic Norms and values and an example and what this leads to ?

Answer 27

Religion creates and legitimates society’s basic Norms and values by making them sacred. Thus in the USA , Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism , meritocracy and self discipline . His serves to promote value consensus and thus social stability

Question 28

Functionalism - How does Parsons see religion as a source of meaning ?

Answer 28

Religion also provides a source of meaning . In particular , it answers ultimate questions about the human condition such as why the good suffer and why some die young . Such events make life appear meaningless and this may undermine our commitment to society’s values . Religion provides answers to such questions . For example , by explaining suffering as a test of faith that will be rewarded in heaven . By doing so , religion enables people to adjust to adverse events or circumstances and helps maintain stability

Question 29

What is meant By Civil Religion ?

Answer 29

Civil religion - a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself

Question 30

What does Bellah argue about how civil religion impacts society ?

Answer 30

Bellah argues that civil religion integrates society in a way that Americans many different churches and denominations cannot American civil religion involves loyalty to the nation state and a belief in God , both which are equated with being a true American Expressed through singing the national anthem etc This binds together all Americans who are from different ethnic and religious backgrounds

Question 31

Evaluation points for Functionalism ?

Answer 31

-Functionalism emphasises the social nature of religion and the positive functions it performs but it neglects the negative aspects of, such as religion as a source of oppression of the poor and women -It ignores religion as a source of division and conflict , especially in complex modern societies where there is more than one religion -the idea of Civil religion overcomes this problem to some extent , by arguing that societies may still have an overarching belief system shared by all , but is this really religion , especially if its not based on the belief of the supernatural

Question 32

Marxism - How does Marx see religion as an ideology ?

Answer 32

In Marx’s View , religion operates as an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to legitimate (justify) the suffering of the poor as something inevitable and God given . Religion misleads the poor into believing that their suffering is virtuous (good) and that they will be favoured in the afterlife. Such ideas create a false class conscious - a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation

Question 33

Marxism - What does Lenin see religion as ?

Answer 33

Lenin describes religion as a spiritual gin - an intoxicant doled (given ) out to the masses by the ruling class to confuse them and keep them in their place . In Lenin’s view , the ruling class use religion cynically to manipulate the masses and keep them from attempting to overthrow the ruling class by creating a mystical fog that obscures reality

Question 34

Marxism - what does Marx also see religion as the product of and what does this involve ?

Answer 34

Marx also sees religion as the product of alienation. Alienation involves becoming separated from or losing control over something that one has produced or created , Alienation exists in all class societies , but is more extreme under capitalism Under capitalism , workers are alienated because they don’t own what they produce and have no control over the production process and thus have no freedom to express their true nature as creative beings

Question 35

Marxism - why and how does religion act as an opiate and what is the problem with this ?

Answer 35

Religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation But the opium masks the pain rather than treating its cause , so religion masks the underlying problems of exploitation . Religion has a distorted view of the world , it offers no solution to earlthy misery but instead promises the afterlife to create an illusion of happiness that distracts attention away from the true source of suffering , capitalism

Question 36

Marxism - how does Marx see religion as the product of alienation and how religion acts as an ideology ?

Answer 36

Marx sees religion as the product of alienation . It arises out of suffering and acts as a consolation for it , but fails to deal with the cause (class exploitation ) . Religion also acts as an ideology that legitimates both the suffering of the poor and the privileges of the ruling class

Question 37

Evaluation of Marxism ?

Answer 37

-Marx shows how religion may be a tool of oppression that masks exploitation and creates false class consciousness. However ,he ignores positive functions of religion , such as psychological adjustments to misfortune -Some Marxists , such as Althusser reject the concept of alienation as unscientific and based on a romantic idea that human beings have a true self. This would make the concept an inadequate basis for a theory of religion -religion doesn’t necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population.

Question 39

Feminism - Evidenece of patriarchy in religious organisations ?

Answer 39

Religious organisations are mainly male dominated despite the fact that women often participate more than men in these organisations . For example , Orthodox , Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become priests

Question 40

Feminism - Evidence of Patriachy in religious organisations , example by Armstrong ?

Answer 40

Armstrong sees exclusion from the priesthood as evidence of women’s marginalisation

Question 41

Feminism - Evidence of Patriachy in places of worship ?

Answer 41

Places of worship often segregate the sexes and marginalise women , for example seating them behind screens while the men occupy the central and more sacred spaces. Women’s participation may be restricted , for example menstruating women aren’t allowed to touch the Quar’an

Question 42

Feminism - Evidence of Patriachy in sacred texts ?

Answer 42

Sacred texts , largely feature the doings of male gods , prophets etc and are usually written and interpreted by men. Stories often reflect anti female stereotypes such as that of Eve who caused humanity’s fall from grace and expulsion from the garden of Eden

Question 43

Feminism - Evidence of Patriachy in religious laws and customs ?

Answer 43

Religious law and customs may give women fewer rights than men , for example in access to divorce ,how many spouses they marry , decision making , dress codes etc. religious influences on the cultural norms may also lead to unequal treatment , such as genital mutiliation or punishments for sexual transgression . Many religions legitimate and regulate women’s traditional domestic and reproductive role . For example the Catholic Church bans abortion ad artificial contraception

Question 44

Feminism - what evidence does Armstrong have that shows that women have not always been subordinate to men within religion and what led to the change of seeing men as most important and women subordinate to them ?

Answer 44

Armstrong argues that early religions often placed women at the centre . For example , female priesthoods were found throughout the Middle East However , the rise of monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a single all powerful , male gods

Question 45

Feminism - what does Saadawi see the rise of monotheism doing ?

Answer 45

Saadawi sees the rise of monotheism as legitimating the power of men over women

Question 46

How does Woodhead criticise the feminist view of religion ?

Answer 46

Woodhead criticises the feminist explanations that simply equate religion with Patriachy and opposes Simon of women . While accepting that much traditional religion is patriarchal, she emphasises that this is not true of all religion. She argues that there are religious forms of feminism - ways in which women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect Woodhead uses the example of the hijab or veil worn by many Muslim women , they tend to wear it as a means of liberation rather than oppression

Question 47

Feminism - how did Brusco find that women use religion to gain status and respect for their roles within the private sphere of their home and family ?

Answer 47

Brusco found in Colombia that women use religion to gain status and respect for their roles within their home and family. By belonging to a Pentecostal group it can be empowering to some women. Despite the strong belief in traditional gender roles that such groups hold , women are able to use religion to increase their power and influence. For example , a strongly held belief among the Pentecostals is that men should respect women . This gives women power to influence men’s behaviour by insisting that they practice what they preach and refrain from macho behaviour