Topic 1 - Theories of Religion Flashcards
What are the 3 main ways sociologists define religion?
- Substantive
- Functional
3.Social constructionist
What do substantive definitions focus on?
Content of religious belief
How did Weber define religion?
Belief in a superior/supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically
How are substantive definitions ‘exclusive’?
They draw a clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs. To classify, they must have belief in a higher power or supernatural
What is the strength of a substantive definition?
Conform to a widespread view of religion as belief in God
What is the limitation of the substantive definition?
Leaves no room for beliefs/practices that perform similar functions but do not involve belie in a high power.
Accused of Western bias, exclude Buddhism
What is a functional definition of religion?
Defining it in terms of social/psychological functions it performs for society or members
How does Durkheim define religion?
In terms of the contribution it makes to social integration
What function does functionalist Yinger identify?
Answers ‘ultimate questions’ about meaning of life and after death
What are some advantages of functional definitions?
Inclusive
No Western bias
What is the limitations for functional definitions?
Integration doesn’t constitute a religion.
What kind of approach of social constructionists take?
Interpretivist
What do social constructionists argue?
Not possible to produce single universal definition to cover all cases, since different people mean very different things by religio
What are social constructionists interested in?
How definitions are constructed, challenged, fought over
Aldridge
Scientology a religion for followers, but many gov’s denied it legal status and sought to ban it
Shows definitions can be contested + influenced by those who have power to define
What do SC NOT make assumptions about?
That religion always involves a belief in a higher power, or that it performs similar functions for all people in all societies
What is an advantage of SC approach to religion definition?
Allows them to get close to meanings given by people
What is a limitation of the SC approach to religion?
Impossible to generalise about religion’s nature, since people differ on what classifies as a religion
What central role do religious institutions play? Which sociologist first developed this idea?
Creates and maintains value consensus, order and solidarity. Durkheim
What did Durkheim believe was the key feature in religion?
Fundamental distinction between sacred and profane found in all religions
What is the ‘profane’?
Things that have no special significance, ordinary, mundane.
What is the ‘sacred’?
Things set apart/forbidden, inspire feelings of the sublime and are surrounded by taboos and prohibitions
Instead of simply being a set of beliefs, what does religion also include, according to Durkheim?
Definite collective rituals/practices in relations to the sacred.
Why does Durkheim think the sacred inspires such powerful feelings in believers?
Because they are symbols presenting something of great power
What does Durkheim believe this thing of great power is? Why?
Society, since it is the only thing he thinks is powerful enough to command such feelings
How did Durkheim believe the essence of all religion could be found?
By studying its simplest form
What are people worshipping, in Durkheim’s opinion, when they worship scared symbols?
Society
What is the common function of the sacred?
All perform essential function of uniting believers into single mora community
What did the Arunta do?
Came together periodically to perform rituals involving worship of a sacred totem
How did he study this?
Using studies of the Arunta, an Aboriginal 🇦🇺 tribe with a clan system
What purpose did the shared worship of the totem serve?
Reinforce group solidarity and sense of belonging
What are the clan members not aware of, according to Durkheim?
That they are worshipping society
Why does the totem inspire feelings of awe?
It represents the power of the group on which the individual is ‘utterly dependent’
What do the sacred symbols represent, in Durkheim’s view?
Society’s collective conscience
Define collective conscience
Shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible
What role does religion play for the individual?
Makes them feel part of something greater than themselves. Reinvigorates us to face trials that would otherwise defeat us.
What does Durkheim argue that regular shared religious rituals reinforce?
The collective conscience and maintain social integration
Explain the functional view of shared rituals
Bind individuals. Remind them of the single community to which they owe their loyalty
Remind people of power of society to which they owe everything, and are nothing without
What else does Durkheim see as the role of religion?
Source of our intellectual/cognitive capacities
What do we need in order to think?
What do we need in order to think?
1. Categories (time, space, substance, number, cause)
- To share our thoughts, we need to share the same categories as others
What is religion the origin of, in Durkheim’s view?
Of the concepts and categories needed for reasoning, understanding the world and communicating
Durkheim and Mauss - What does religion provide?
Basic categories such as 🕰️🌌🌠and causation
(Division of tribes = first notion of classification
God creating world = time)
Criticism (Totemism) - Worsley
No sharp division between sacred and profane, different clans share totems.
Cannot generalise about essence of other religions using finding about totemism
What can Durkheim’s theory be better applied to?
Small-scale societies with a single religion with no religious conflict. It can explain social integration within communities but not conflicts WITHIN/BETWEEN larger ones
Postmodern criticism - Mestrovic
Durkheim’s ideas cannot be applied contemporarily due to increasing diversity fragmenting collective conscience, so there is not shared value to reinforce
Which anthropologist agrees with Durkheim about religion promoting social solidarity?
Malinowski
What other roles does Malinowski believe religion performs?
Psychological functions - helps individuals to cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity
In what 2 situations does Malinowski argue that religion plays a psychological role?
- Outcome important, uncontrollable, thus uncertain
- Times of life crises - Major and disruptive changes
Give an example of the role of religion in uncertain outcomes:
Trobriand Islanders: Lagoon fishing VS Ocean fishing
Elaborate on the ‘Lagoon fishing VS Ocean fishing’ example in Malinowski’s study
LF = safe, predictable method of poison, so NO RITUAL
OF = Dangerous, uncertain, accompanied by ‘canoe magic’
What role does the ‘canoe magic’ rituals have in Malinowski’s view?
Gives a sense of control, eases tensions, confidence to undertake hazardous task, reinforces group solidarity.
Give some examples of times of life crises
Birth, puberty, marriage, death
What role does religion play in times of life crisis?
Minimises disruption
Minimises disruption
Funeral rites - reinforce solidarity amongst bereaved
Notion of immortality - comfort to bereaved
Who agrees with Malikowski’s ideas about the psychological functions of religion?
Parsons
What does Malinowski argue is the main reason for the existence of religious belief?
Death
What are the 2 additional functions Parsons identifies for religion?
- Creates and legitimates society’s central values
- Primary source of meaning
How does religion create and legitimise society’s basic norms and values?
By sacralising them
What core American values has Protestantism sacralised?
Individualism, meritocracy, self-discipline
How does religion provide meaning?
Answers ‘ultimate’ questions about the human condition. E.g. Why some people die young. Events that defy sense of justice, make life seem meaningless undermines commitment to society’s values. Religion answers questions, enabling us to adjust to instability and helps maintain functionality.
What unifies American society, in Bellah’s view?
Overarching civil religion
What is Bellah interested in?
How religion unifies society (in multifaith societies like USA)
What is civil religion?
A belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself
What is the civil religion in the USA?
Americanism/ ‘American way of life’
What makes civil religion different to America’s many churches and denominations?
CR can claim the loyalty of all Americans, making its integration of members better than normal religion
What does American civil religion involve?
Loyalty to the nation state
Belief in God
How is American civil religion expressed?
Various rituals, symbols, beliefs, pledge of allegiance, singing national anthem, Lincoln Memorial
What does American civil religion do?
Sacralises American way of life and binds Americans together from different ethnic and religious backgrounds.
What are functional alternatives to religion?
Non-religious beliefs and practices that perform similar function to those of organised religion
Give some examples of other belief systems which perform similar functions?
Nazi Germany + Soviet Union = both secular political beliefs and rituals around which they sought to unite society
What is the problem with functional alternatives?
Ignores what makes religion distinctive and different - its belief in the supernatural
Criticism of the functionalist view: (+VS -)
Emphasises positive functions of religion but ignores negative aspects such as religion as source of oppression (🚺)
Criticism of the functionalist view (➗)
Ignores religion as a source of ➗ and conflict (Northern Ireland) especially where there is religious pluralism (☓ unite people)
Criticism of Civil religion
Is it really religion? Not based around belief in supernatural (patriotism)
What does Marxism see religion as?
A feature only of a class-divided society
What do Marxists believe about religion and the classless society?
They will not coexist
What is ideology, for Marx?
A belief system that distorts people’s perception of reality in ways that serve the interests of the RC
How does the bourgeois control the production and distribution of ideas in society?
