Topic 1: Quantitative research methods Flashcards
positivism
- model research methods on natural science
- Produce Objective, true, scientific knowledge
- cause and effect
interpretivism
- prefer quantitative data
- Gives us a ‘feel’ for what something is like
- deeper meaning
Key features of lab experiments
Control: controlled experiment. Artificial environment test hypotheses. Split into experimental (IV) and control group
cause and effect: condition of both groups measures before and after. Discover cause and effect relationship predict future outcomes (say in exam)
practical issues: open systems
keat and Urry - lab experiments are only suitable for studying closed systems where the researcher can control all the variables. Society is an open system with countless variables. Unsuitable for studying social phenomena
practical issues: complexity
no humans are alike, impossible to match experimental groups
practical issues: past
cannot be used to study people in the past, cannot keep people in lab experiments for a long time
practical issues: samples
only study small samples eg impossible to study members of a major religion. Small samples risk the appearance of variables just being a chance correlation
practical issues : expectancy effect
experimenter bias, what a researcher expects to happen can affect the outcome
ethical issues: informed consent
participants should be informed by the nature of the experiments, however, this is self defeating as they may act differently
ethical issues: Harm
some argue that minor harm can justified to yield social benefits. Experiment group may be benefitting from treatment, should be given to control group link to milgram
theoretical issues positives
+ replicability: experimenter can control the conditions, produces quantitative data so can be rerun and it is a very detached method
+ predictions: effective way to test hypotheses and make predictions
theoretical issues negatives
representativeness: lack external validity due to only studying small samples and artificial conditions
internal validity: Hawthorne effect may produce invalid results
free will: humans can make their own choices
Field experiment
Different to lab because it takes place in the subjects natural surroundings and those involved do not know they are the subject eg Rosenthal and Jacobson
positives of field experiment
+ artificiality: avoids artificial conditions of a lab, much more natural and valid for real life
state a type of field experiment
correspondence tests eg Brown and Gay studied racial discrimination in the workplace, sent applications to 1000 vacancies from 3 ethnicities
negatives pf field experiments
- variables: less control over variables, cannot be certain we have identified the cause
- unethical: subjects have no knowledge/ consent
what are close ended questionnaires
- force choice q’s
- limited possible answers
- recoded for analysis
what are open ended questionnaires
- free to answer how they choose to
- no preselected questions
practical issues: Questionnaires, positives
Time and cost: quick and cheap way to gather large amounts of data. No need to train interviews. Easy to quantify results - however may need to offer prize incentives
practical issues: questionnaires, positives
Validity: cannot be sure it was the respondent who completed the questionnaire
response rate: can be low need to follow up Q’s
flexibility: inflexible cannot explore new areas of interest
snapshot: fail to capture how peoples attitudes change
theoretical issues in using questionnaires: positivists
+ Hypothesis testing enable sociologists to identify cause and effect relationships. Establish correlations
+ reliability: Use Q’s identical so the original one. ‘standardised measuring instrument’. can be checked by another researcher
+ representative: large scale, cover wide geographical areas. Use sophisticated sampling techniques
+ detachment: sociologists personal involvement is kept to a minimum
theoretical issues in using questionnaires: interpretivist
- Detachment: must use methods that involve us closely with the people we research to get a valid picture. Cannot clarify questions eg cultural differences
- lying/ forgetting: Schofield ‘are you a virgin?’ ‘no not yet ‘. try to second guess or give respectable answer. Impossible to tell whether they are telling the truth .
- researchers meaning: choosing the questions in advance
- close ended: cant express opinion. Open ended - non identical answers lumped together
what are structured interviews
- formal
- conducted in a standardised way
- precisely same questions, wording etc
what are unstructured interviews
- informal
- guided convos
- include groups/ focus groups
practical issues with structured interviews: Positives
+ representativeness: Can cover a large number of people eg young and Willmott interview 933 people on families
+ data: Easily quantified
+ cost: training interviews is relatively straightforward
+ response rate: higher than Q’s young and willmott only had 54/987 refusals
practical issues with structured interviews: negatives
flexibility: inflexible because the schedule is drawn up in advance
snapshots: only capture one moment in time
ethical issues with structured interviews: Positives
+ Harm: participants under no obligation to answer Q’s
ethical issues with structured interviews: negatives
- may feel under pressure to answer them. Care needs to be taken to avoid psychological damage
- consent: needed before the interviews, guarantee anonymity, however, this can be difficult eg Brookman interviewing murders
- vulnerable groups: kept brief and careful to avoid pressure
theoretical issues with structured interviews - positivism: positives
+ hypothesis testing: like Q’s, SI can establish correlations and allow us to make generalisations
+ reliability: a form of standardised measuring instrument, replicate even tone ‘recipe’ for repeating research
+ representativeness: large samples means generalisations are more valid
theoretical issues with structured interviews - positivism: negatives
- those willing to be interviewed may be unrepresentative
theoretical issues with structured interviews - interpretivists: negatives
- validity: normally use close ended Q’s, forces interviewees to choose from limited answers
- freedom: very little to clarify Q’s
- lying: interviewees may lie or exaggerate
- meaning: research imposing meanings and drawing up the interview schedule in advance
theoretical issues with structured interviews - feminism: negatives
- exploitation: ‘research and rape’ (Reinharz) - take hit and run
- masculinity: Oakley - detached and masculine method, interviewees have a passive role
- validity: interviews distort women’s experience, dont allow women to express themselves
what are examples of official statistics
- births, marriages and deaths
- exam results, school exclusions
- crime, suicide
what are the several sources of information that is used to create official stats
- registration: eg register births
- official surveys: eg general household survey
- administrative records: eg schools
pratical advantages of official stats
cost: free sources of huge data eg 10 years census is published
power: state has the power to compel people to answer, reduces low response rate
comparisons: compare racial groups, religions etc
trends: show patterns over time
practical disadvantages of official stats
agenda: government creates stats for its own purposes, also may be none available
accuracy: two sets of data may cover different population
definitions: may differ/change from those sociologists use
positivism advantages of official stats
- representativeness: large scale and often cover the whole population, great care is taken with sampling selection eg crime survey 38,000
- reliability: completed by trained staff
positivism disadvantages of official stats
census coders may make error or public may not fill in form correctly
interpretivist disadvantages of official stats
- social constructs: stats are not real, represent labels attached to people eg mental illness those who consult a doctor
- soft stats: admin records less valid as they represent decisions eg schools definition of what truancy is
interpretivists advantages of official stats
hard stats: more valid, little dispute how categories we are defined and legal requirement
Briefly explain how the Marxist view of official statistics differs from:
The positivist view
they reject the positivist claim that official stats are objective facts
Briefly explain how the Marxist view of official statistics differs from: The interpretivist view
marxists do not see official stats as merely the outcome of the labels applied by officials. Instead they regard official stats as serving the interest of capitalism
Identify three ways in which Marxists see official statistics as performing an ideological function.
- politically sensitive data that would reveal the unequal, exploitative nature of capitalism may not be published
- since the 1980s data derived from analysis of census return no longer includes class different in death rates
- state has frequently changed its definition of unemployment which has reduced the numbers of those who are classed as unemployed
Briefly explain two reasons why feminists criticise the use of official statistics.
- Oakley and graham the use of quantitative surveys as they regard this as ‘masculine’ or patriarchal model of research
- official stats are created by the state which feminists regard as maintaining patrichal oppression
Using examples, briefly explain why not all official statistics may reflect patriarchy
- some stats such as those on earnings from paid work, show clear evidence of gender inequality
- there has been changes in the definitions used in official stats that may reveal womens positions more clearly
