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Psychology A Level Year 1 > Topic 1- Memory > Flashcards

Topic 1- Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What are the stores in multi-store model of memory?

A

Sensory input, sensory register (forgetting), attention, STM (forgetting), rehearsal/maintenance rehearsal, LTM

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2
Q

What is the capacity/coding/duration of sensory register, STM and LTM?

A

sensory register - n/a, all possible ways, milliseconds
stm- 7 +/- 2 bits, acoustically, 18-30 seconds
LTM- unlimited, semantically, unlimited

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3
Q

Who created the multi-store model of memory?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin

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4
Q

Outline- Simon (1974)

A

Aim; LAB to investigate the capacity in STM and also tested out Miller’s “chunking theory” which suggests we can hold 7 +/- 2 chunks of information in STM.
Procedures; P’s presented with lists of 1 word chunks, 2 word chunks or 8 word chunks.. Then asked to recall
Findings; larger the chunks, less could be remembered. Average recall 7 one word, 4 two word and 3 eight word.
SUPPORTS THE IDEA OF LIMITED CAPACITY~

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5
Q

Criticisms- Simon (1974)

A

+ well controlled lab experiment, used repeated measures design
+results are reliable because experiment has been repeated
-artificial .. Lacks external validity

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6
Q

Outline- Peterson and Peterson(1959)

A

Aim; LAB to investigate the duration of stm using the Brown- Peterson Technique
Procedures; briefly shown trigrams asked to recall after 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds. Then given a interference task (counting in 3s backwards from 90) preventing rehearsal
Findings; after…
3seconds- 80%
6seconds- 40%
18seconds- 10%

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7
Q

Criticisms- Peterson and Peterson(1959)

A

+ IV under direct manipulation of the experimenter

-lacks external validity

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8
Q

Outline- Conrad(1964)

A

Aim; to investigate the main form of coding STM by identifying errors in the recall of similar sounding letters and similar looking letters.
Procedure; shown lists of 6 printed words for 0.75 seconds - writing down as many as they could remember, presentations was too fast so information was held in STM
Findings; tended to make mistakes with sounds of letters rather than their appearance

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9
Q

What did Simon investigate?

A

CAPACITY IN STM

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10
Q

What did Peterson and Peterson investigate?

A

DURATION IN STM

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11
Q

What did Conrad investigate?

A

CODING IN STM

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12
Q

Criticisms- Conrad (1964)

A

+well controlled - IV under control of experimenter

-artificial environment- lacks external validity

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13
Q

Capacity of LTM?

A

Very difficult to research but is thought to be unlimited

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14
Q

Duration in LTM

A

Unlimited

-> BAHRICK

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15
Q

Coding in LTM

A

Semantically

-> BADDELEY

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16
Q

Outline- Bahrick (1975)

A

Aim; to investigate the duration of LTM by identifying whether or not people can remember names and faces of class mates years after leaving school
Procedures; cross-sectional study using 392 ex-high school students of various ages, graduated anywhere between 2 weeks or 57 years ago
Asked to free recall names of classmates. + shown photographs from their yearbooks and asked to match names to faces or select classmate from 5 photos(4 were decoys)
Findings; 90% of faces recognised -35years
90% of names recognised-15years
90% matching names and faces -48years

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17
Q

Criticisms- Bahrick (1975)

A

+high external validity

-only one type of LTM being investigated

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18
Q

Outline- Baddeley (1966)

A

Aim; to investigate the main form of coding in LTM by identifying errors in the recall of semantically similar and dissimilar words and errors in the recall of acoustically similar and dissimilar words.
Procedure; presented with 4 sets of words and asked to recall.
Findings; p’s asked to recall after a time interval, performance was the same for acoustically similar and dissimilar words, errors with semantically similar and dissimilar- p’s were more likely to make errors with semantically similar.

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19
Q

Criticisms- Baddeley (1966)

A

+control over IV

-lacks external validity

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20
Q

Evaluate- MSMM

A

+the serial position effect -Murdoch (1962) supports idea of different stores and role of rehearsal.
+brain damaged patients e.g Clive Wearing
+studies suggest a difference in capacity and duration between STM and LTM (Simon, p+p and bahrick)
-too much emphasis on rehearsal, ignores incidental learning
-Clive wearing suggests LTM is more complicated than just a unitary store
-MSMM suggests info must flow through STM to reach LTM (KF short term severely impaired but LTM unaffected

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21
Q

List the components of the Working Memory Model of Memory?

A 
The Central Executive 
Phonological Loop
Visio-Spatial Sketch pad 
Episodic buffer
LTM
22
Q

Who created the WMM

A

Baddeley and Hitch

23
Q

Outline- Murdoch(1962)

A

Procedure; Ps given long list of words
Findings; words at the beginning of list are remembered better -primacy effect
Words at the end of the list are remembered better -recency effect

24
Q

Outline- Clive Wearing

A

Suffered brain damage as a result of a virus. Unable to lay down new LTM but has working STM
+supports MSMM suggests there are deprecate short term and long term memory stores
-suggests LTM is more complex than just unitary store - was able to play piano but unable to recognise photographs of his Cambridge college

25
Q

Types of LTM?

A

Episodic Memory -like a diary of our life
Semantic Memory -knowledge of facts about the world (dictionary)
Procedural Memory -how to do things(memory of actions or skills)

26
Q

What are the two explanations for forgetting?

A

Interference and retrieval failure

27
Q

Outline the stores within the working model of memory

A

The central executive directs attention to particular tasks.
Very limited capacity - attend to a limited number of things at any time
Codes information from any type of source (modality free)

Phonological loop stores a limited number of speech based sounds for brief periods (2secs)
Very limited capacity
Acoustic coding
Subdivided into the phonological store and the articulatory process

Visuo-spatial sketch pad used when you have to plan a spatial task
Capacity limited to 4 objects
Visual coding

Episodic buffer enables the central executive to access information in the LTM and integrate it with information in the other systems.
(Creates a mental episode of what is experienced and maintains a sense of time sequencing.)
Capacity is limited to 4 chunks
Coding is modality free

28
Q

Evaluate the working memory model

A

+ support comes from dual task experiments. Model predicts that it’s harder to do two things at the same time if they are both retrieving info from the same store. Compared to doing two things from different stores.
BADDELEY- ps given a visual task (tracking and moving light with a pointer) and either to imagine a hollow letter F and going round it saying whether each of the angles was inside or outside the shape or repeating words.
+brain scans -COHEN put ps in a brain scanner and asked them to carry out different tasks. When central executive was working, there was activity in the frontal lobe and occipital lobe of the brain was active when the task was visual.

  • central executive is very important part of the model, but there isn’t enough info on how it allocates resources.
  • model suggests there is a single central executive but there is evidence for several components. EVR had a cerebral tumour removed. Good at tests requiring reasoning, but bad at decision making skills.
29
Q

Evidence for different types of long term memory

A

CLIVE WEARING and HM show that although episodic memory was severely impaired, both men retained their procedural and semantic memory.

BRAIN SCANS shown that episodic memories involve activity in the right side of the prefrontal cortex, whereas semantic memories involve the left side of the prefrontal cortex. Supports they are physically separate and has been replicated many times, therefore high validity.

30
Q

Criticism of three types of LTM

A

Some researchers don’t agree that episodic and semantic memories are stored separately. Both part of a single store named declarative memory.( memories that can be consciously recalled )

31
Q

What are the two types of interference?

A

Proactive interference and retroactive interference

32
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

When old memories interfere with newer ones. Rearrange the kitchen cupboards but go back to older place

33
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

Happens when a new memory interferes with an older one. When learning a new post code it’s hard to recall the old one.

34
Q

Outline evidence for interference and the effect of similarity

A

MCGEOCH AND MCDONALD effect of similarity on retroactive interference
Ps to learn 10 adjectives until 100% accurate.
Then some learn one list and others learn another list. Then tested again on original list.

Second list were synonyms of first list did worst

Second list were numbers did best

35
Q

Evaluation of McGeoch and McDonald

A

+Replicated many times+highly controlled method used

-artificial:using lists of words to investigate memory is more relevant to everyday life than using nonsense syllables or lists of letters.

36
Q

Real life application of interference

A

BADDELEY AND HITCH asked rugby player to recall the teams they had played against that season.
Recall was better if players had missed one or more games since then.

37
Q

Outline retrieval failure

A

Cues enable us to retrieve information from LTM - coded at the time of learning (internal and external)

Coding specificity principle suggests that cues must be present at time of learning and also at time of retrieval if they are to help us recall information. Two examples:

Context dependent forgetting-GODDEN AND BADDELEY divers to learn lists of words either on beach or underwater. Same location recalled 40% more words than different location.
State dependent forgetting-CARTER AND CASSADAY asked to learn words either with or without taking a mild sedative beforehand. Those who were drowsy both learning and recalling were able to recall more words.

38
Q

Evaluation for retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

A

Two studies above give good evidence that forgetting can be due to retrieval failure.

  • may be that the difference in context or state between learning and recall must be very great to lead to forgetting, and in real life such great differences may be rare.

Basic principle of the cognitive interview is that recall can be improved by recreating the context of a crime, giving the importance of retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting

39
Q

How does research into retrieval failure have implications for the economy?

A

Help us to learn more successfully, gain better qualifications and get better paid work- therefore contributing more to the economy

40
Q

What is eyewitness testimony

A

The description given by people of an event they have experienced, including that given in a criminal trial by individuals present at the time of the crime. It included the identification of people as well as details such as speed of vehicles, weather conditions etc

41
Q

What are the factors which affect eyewitness testimony

A

Anxiety

Misleading information

42
Q

Outline studies into anxiety affecting EWT

A

JOHNSON AND SCOTT investigated the effects of anxiety on EWT. They used two conditions; ps overheard a low-key discussion in a lab about an equipment failure. Person emerged from lab holding pen, with grease on his hands.
ps overheard a heated and hostile exchange between people in the lab. After sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs, a man emerged holding a paper knife covered in blood. Ps when shown 50 photos and asked to identify the person who had come out of the lab. 49% with pen and grease 33% of the time with knife and blood

LOFTUS AND BURNS showed ps a violent or non-violent short film. Those who saw the violent film where a boy was shot in the face were less accurate in recalling info about the crime in the non-violent film.
-weapon focus

CHRISTIANSON AND HUBINETTE questioned 58 witnesses to bank robberies. Either on lookers or bank staff who were threatened. Witnesses who were threatened were more accurate in their recall than the less threatened witnesses. This superior recall continued to be evident, even after 15 months

43
Q

What is the relationship between anxiety and accuracy of EWT?

A

An inverted U. This means that medium arousal improves accuracy of EWT, but high arousal makes it worse.

44
Q

Which factors are involved in misleading information?

A

Leading questions

Post event discussion

45
Q

Outline research into misleading information, leading questions

A

LOFTUS ABD PALMER effects of ps hearing different words when asked about their memory of a car crash. 30 second videotape of two cars colliding. Then asked about the speed in which they were going but with a different verb.
Conditions were “hit”, “smashed”, “collided”, “bumped” and “contacted”. A week later they were asked if there was any broken glass even though there wasn’t.
Average speed increased as strength of verb increased e.g smashed 41mph and contacted 32mph.
Broken glass: 32% smashed and 14% hit

YUILLE AND CUTSHALL real life setting. Interviewed 13 witnesses to an attempted theft from a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada, where the shop keeper shot and killed the thief. Four months later, the witness accounts remained highly accurate and weren’t affected by misleading information.

46
Q

Outline research into misleading information, post event discussion

A

GABERT ET AL asked pairs of participants to watch videos of the same crime, but filmed from different view points, showing slightly different details of the crime. They then discussed together what they had seen, before completing recall tests.
71% of participants recalled events they had not seen in the video but had picked up from the discussion. In a control group, none recalled events they had not seen.

47
Q

Evaluation of research into eye-witness testimony

A

+this research has clear practical implications for real life situations such as police interviews and court cases. This is an area where psychologists can make an extremely important contribution to improving the lives of real people, by changing the way the legal system works.

  • some raise ethical issues
  • lack of external validity
  • LOFTUS AND PALMER focused on memories of peripheral details. FRUZETTI suggested it is much harder to distort EWT by misleading post event information for key details than it is for minor details
48
Q

Outline the cognitive interview

A 
FISHER AND GEISELMAN 
1 report everything
2 mental reinstatement of the original context
3 changing the order when recalling
4 changing the perspective
49
Q

Evaluation of cognitive interviews

A

A meta- analysis of 53 studies found. In comparison to standard interviews, cog interviews had 34% more correct information. However, most of these studies tested volunteer witnesses in a lab.

A similar study by STEIN AND MEMON, where women watched a video of an abduction. Ps in the CI provided more superior data, which was rich in detail- compared to standard interviews

No longer just one procedure but a collection of related techniques. CI takes too long so many interviewers only use a couple of techniques

50
Q

How does the cognitive interview have implications for the economy?

A

Much longer, meaning there is a need for greater funding for the police and requiring increased public spending. However, as it is a more successful method of getting information it could increase police efficiency.

Psychology A Level Year 1 (8 decks)

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