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Biology > Topic 1 - Lifestyle/health + Risk > Flashcards

Topic 1 - Lifestyle/health + Risk Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Open circulatory system

A
  • Blood circulates in open spaces.
  • Simple heart pumps blood into cavities surrounding organs.
  • Substances can diffuse between blood and cell.
  • Heart relaxes, blood drawn back in.

Eg insects.

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2
Q

Closed circulatory system

A
  • Blood flows in narrow tubes called blood vessels, generating high bp.
  • Faster transport means more efficiency in transporting blood around larger organism.

Eg mammals.

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3
Q

Single/double circulatory system

A

Single: Blood flows once through the heart per each complete circuit of the body. Eg fish.

Double: Blood flows through the heart twice for each complete circuit. Eg humans.

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4
Q

Properties of blood vessels

A

Collogen containing walls, strong fibrous protein. Allows them to withstand pressure.

Elastic fibers. Allows vessel to stretch and recoil. Maintaining blood pressure during diastole.

Smooth walls. Allows vessel to constrict and dialate, less friction between vessel and blood = efficient flow.

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5
Q

Arteries

Transport oxygenated blood under high pressure away from the heart - except pulmonary artery

A
  • Narrow lumen
  • thick walls, more collogen can withstand high pressure
  • Elastic fibers that allow the artery to recoil behind blood during diastole forcing it forward
  • Smooth walls that can constrict and dilate, maintain bp
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6
Q

Veins

Transport deoxygenated blood to the heart under low pressure - except for pulmonary vein

A
  • Narrow lumen
  • Thin walls, less collogen
  • elastic fibers and smooth walls
  • Valves, as they fill with blood they close preventing backflow of blood.
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7
Q

Cardiac cycle - Stage 1

Atrial systole

A

Blood flows into the left and right atria under low pressure from the pulmonary vein (from lungs) and vena cava (from body).

Artria fill with blood forcing AV valves open, blood leaks into ventricles. Atria contract (systole) forcing more blood into the ventricles.

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8
Q

Cardiac cycle - Stage 2

Ventricular systole

A

Ventricles contract increasing pressure in ventricles, forcing open semi-lunar valves.

Blood pushed out of aorta and pulmonary artery.

Pressure of blood against AV valves closes them preventing back flow of blood into the atria.

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9
Q

Cardiac cycle -Stage 3

Cardiac diastole

A

Atria and ventricles relax, elastic recoil of heart muscles lowers pressure in atria and ventricles.

Blood under high pressure in the aorta and pulmonaty artery is drawn back closing SL valves as they fill with blood.

Coronary arteries fill up during diastole. Low pressure helps draw in low pressure blood from veins.

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10
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

1) The endothelium lining of an artery gets damaged causing an inflammatory response, white blood cells are sent to the site.
2) Cells gather chemicals from the blood, particularly cholesterol. These cause a build up of fatty deposits known as an atheroma.
3) calcium salts and fibrous tissue build up at the site = plaque. Plaque hardens causing artery to lose elasticity.
4) Plaque causes lumen to narrow restricting blood flow thus increasing bp.
5) Positive feedback as high bp increases chance of plaque to form and further damage to occur.

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11
Q

Atherosclerosis

Cause + effect

A

Cause: High bp/high cholesterol

Effect:

  • Coronary arteries blocked = heart attack
  • Arteries supplying blood to brain blocked = stroke
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12
Q

Blood clotting

A
  • Blood clots seal break in blood vessels, prevent blood loss and pathogens entering
  • When in contact to damaged vessel they turn from flat discs -> spheres with long projections
  • Allows them to stick together and each other = temporary platelet plug.

Clotting cascade of changes results in a blood clot

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13
Q

Clotting cascade

A

1) Platelets and damaged tissue release protein -> Thromboplastin
2) This activates enzyme that catalyses conversion of protein prothrombin into enzyme thrombin, vitamin K + Calcium ions must also be present for this to occur
3) Thrombin catalyses conversion of soluble plasma protein fibrogen into insoluble plasma protein fribin
4) Tangled mesh of fibrin traps more platelets and blood cells
5) Clot forms and artery narrows

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14
Q

Hypertension

A

Another word for high blood pressure, causes friction between blood vessels and blood

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15
Q

Aneurysm

A

Artery get blocked by blood clot/plaque

Blood builds up behind clot

Artery bulges and becomes weaker

Increases chance of wall splitting open, internal bleeding

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16
Q

Coronary artery

A

An artery supplying blood to the heart

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17
Q

Coronary diseases

A

Angina: chest pain. When artery narrows less O2 can be supplied to the muscles, including heart.

Myocardial infarction: heart attack. When artery is fully blocked the heart becomes ischemic (without blood). The heart can be permanently damaged.

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18
Q

Symptoms of coronary disease

A
  • Shortness of breath
  • Angina (own symptoms: intense chest/shoulder pain
  • fatigue
  • burning behind breastbone
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19
Q

Arrhythmia

A

Irregular heart beats

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20
Q

Stroke

A

Blood flow to the brain is disrupted by blood clot/plaque.

If brain is starved of O2 for even a few minutes permanent damage could be caused

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21
Q

Symptoms of stroke

A
  • Numbness
  • Dizziness
  • slurred speech
  • Blurred/loss of vision
  • Paralysis of one side or the body
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22
Q

Capillaries

A

One endothelial cell thick

Narrow lumen, only big enough for one red blood cell

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23
Q

Water as an ideal transport medium

A
  • Liquid at room temp

- Slightly positive charge on one end, negative on the other = Dipole nature

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24
Q

Water as an ideal transport medium

Solvent properties

A
  • Allows other dipole natured molecule to dissolve in it, vital for bio-chemical reactions in cell
  • Molecules free to move in the aqueous environment can react with water : Hydrolysis/condensation
  • dissolved molecule can be transported in blood/lymph systems (humans) and Xylem/phloem (plants)
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25
Q

Water as an ideal transport medium

Thermal properties

A
  • High specific latent heat capacity
  • Many hydrogen bonds require lots of energy to break - allows organism to maintain steady internal temp even when external conditions change
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26
Q

Risk

A

Probability of an unwanted outcome/event occurring.

Usually in the context of hazards: anything that can potentially cause harm

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27
Q

Absolute risk

A

How likely you are to develope a disease over time.

Found by dividing the number of disease cases in pop by total pop

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28
Q

Relative risk

A

Probability as a % increase or decrease relative to a changed factor. Eg exercise decreases risk of CVD

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29
Q

Underestimating risk

A
  • Risk is voluntary
  • Risk is natural
  • risk is fair
  • consequences of risk are in the long-term
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30
Q

Overestimating

risk

A

-risk is forced
-risk is unknown
-risk is unfair
Consequenxes are in the shor-term

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31
Q

Factors affecting health risk

A 
Age
Heritage
Social environment
Physical environment
Lifestyle abd behavour choices
Diet
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32
Q

Correlation

Casual link

A

Correlation: when change in one variable affects the other

Causal link: when one change in a variable cause a direct change in the other variable

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33
Q

Cohot study

A

Large group of people are followed over a long tjme to see who does and does not develop the disease of study

One group, no one has disease at the start.
Those who do and don’t develop disease are compared

OR

One group is exposed to risk factkrs and one is not
Results are compared in a sum total at the end of the study

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34
Q

Case-control studiy

A

Group of people who have the disease are compared with a control who do not
Risk factors they have been exposed to are assessed

Diseased group + control group taken from well representing sample
Histories are taken from each group
Common risk factors are assessed and analysed to determine why one group did not develop disease

35
Q

Good case study

A 
Clear aim
Representative sample
Valid and reliable results
Sample size 
Control over variables
36
Q

List a few basic risk factors for CVD

A
  • High Bp/cholesterol
  • Obesity
  • Genetic inheritance
  • Inactivity
  • Smoking
37
Q

What is blood pressure (systolic+diastolic bp)

A

Bp is a measure of the hydrostatic force of blood against the walls of a blood vessel, generated by a pumping heart.

Systolic bp: pressure found in arteries as heart contracts forcing blood into arteries

Diastolic bp: lowest pressure found when ventricles relax

38
Q

Measuring Bp

A

Sphygomomanometer is used, consists of:

  • Inflatable cuff that is wrapped around the upper arm
  • Manometer that measures pressure and stethoscope
39
Q

when are 1st and 2nd Bp readings taken

A

1st: taken when bp is at systolic pressure in the artery that has been closed
2nd: taken when no sound can be heard this is the lowest pressure, diastole presssure

40
Q

Bp equation

A

Systole ÷ diastole (mmHg)

Norm between 140/100 systolic and 140/90 diastole

41
Q

Peripheral resistance

A

Contact between blood and walls of blood vessel which causes friction and impedes blood flow

42
Q

What happens to bp when artery or arteriole contracts

A

Vessel constricts
Lumen narrows
Resistance increases and Bp rises

Opposite happens when the artery or ateriol relaxes

43
Q

Factors that constrict the vessel

A

Loss of elasticity due to age
High salt diet
Release of hormones like adrenaline

44
Q

Tissue fluid + odemia

A

1) Arterial end of capillary under high pressure
2) Forcing fluid and small molecules into gaps between capillary walls into intermolecular spaces (forming tissue fluid)
3) Tissue fluid drains into network of lymph capillaries which returns fluid to the blood via lymph vessel that empties in vena cava

45
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Sugar and starch are classified as carbohydrates

Cx(H2O)n

Carbohydrates store and provide energy

46
Q

Monosaccharides

A

(CH2O)n

They contain 6 carbons = hexose sugars

Ring of 5 Cs with 6th C projected above/below structure

  • Monosaccharides are easily absorbed + rapidly release energy
  • little or no change required before being used in respiration
47
Q

Fructose

A
  • Found in fruit + some veg

- sweetness attracts animals helping fruit to reproduce

48
Q

Glucose

A
  • Main sugar used in respiration
  • When starch or glycogen digests glucose is produced

This can easily be absorbed and transported by blood stream

49
Q

Galactose

A
  • Found as part of lactose
  • Shares same molecular formula as glucose

C6H12O6

-OH groups on Carbon 1 and four are different compared to glucose

50
Q

Disaccharides

A

Two single units join in condensation reaction, water molecule released when two sugars join

Glycosidic bonds formed between units, bonds can be broken through hydrolysis

51
Q

Sucrose

A
  • Formed from glucuse and fructose
  • main form in which sugar is transported around a plant

1.4 glycosidic bond

52
Q

Maltose

A
  • Formed from two glucose molecules
  • Disaccharide found when amylase breaks down starch

1.4 glycosidic bond

53
Q

Lactose

A

-Formed from glucose + galactose

People with lactose intolerance can have hydrolised milk

1.4 glycosidic bond

54
Q

Why are starch and glycogen good energy stores

A
  • Compact molecules
  • Low solubility in water
  • Do not affect conc of water in cytoplasm, do not affect osmosis
55
Q

Amylose

A
  • Found in plants
  • 1.4 glycosidic bonds between adjacent glucose molecules
  • Position of bonds causes chain to coil into single chain
56
Q

Amylopectin

A
  • A polymer of glucose but has branches and long chains
  • 1.6 and 1.4 glycosidic bonds
  • Found in plants
57
Q

Glycogen

A
  • Used in bacteria fungi and animals as an energy store instead of starch
  • Polymer consists of glucose molecules
  • Multiple branches means easily hydrolised
  • 1.4 and 1.6 glycosidic bonds
58
Q

Cellulose

A
  • Non-starch polysaccharide

- Found in plants, 1.4 glycosidic bonds forming long chains

59
Q

Lipids

A

Term used to describe fats and oils

Provides double the energy that carbs
Large amounts of energy can be stored in small masses
Insoluble in water

Lipids we eat = triglycerides made from 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerole
Bond formed = ester bond, 3 ester bonds in each trigylceride

Joined though condensation reaction

60
Q

Saturated fats

A
  • Single C-C bonds
  • Hydrocarbon has MAX amount of hydrogen atoms
  • Straight saturated hydrocarbon chain = can be tightly packed
  • Strong bonds between trigluceride fatty acids = fat solid at rt
61
Q

Unsaturated fats

A
  • One C=C between each fatty acid chain
  • Polyunsaturated fats have many double bonds causing kinks in hydrogen chains = cant be compact
  • Weak intermolecular forces of attraction due to kink = fat liquid at rt
62
Q

Cholesterol

A

Short lipid molecule essential for good health

  • Made in our liver from saturated fats
  • Found in diet (like egg)

Insoluble cholesterol binds with proteins to form lipoproteins which can be transported in blood

63
Q

LDLs

A

Low density lipoproteins
Main cholesterol carrier in blood

Consists of: saturated triglyceride, cholesterol and protein

Transported from the liver to blood, maintains cell membrane - circulates in blood till needed

Excess LDL = higher blood cholesterol

LDL cholesterol can be deposited in arteries forming atheromas

64
Q

HDLs

A

High density lipoproteins
Reduces platelet aggression, lowers risk of cvd

Consists of: unsaturated triglycerides, cholesterol and protein

Transports cholesterol from blood to liver where its broken down

Lowers blood cholesterol, prevents fatty plaques

Higher % of protein compared to LDLs

65
Q

Saturated/unsaturated fats in diet

A

Saturated fats: increase both LDL and HDL cholesterol, increase LDL more

Unsaturated fats: Increase both but greater decrease in LDL cholesterol, HDL:LDL ratio increases

Low fat diets that avoid saturated fats reduce blood cholesterol, esspecially LDL

66
Q

DRVs

A

Dietry reference values
Provide average nutrient requirements for men and women of different ages

EAR - estimated average requirement
LRNI - lower reference nutrient intake
HRNI - higher reference nutrient intake

67
Q

Fats

A

Supply fat to diet but also essential fatty acids that body cannot synthesise

Fat must be present in diet to avoid deficiency symptoms

68
Q

BMR

A 
Basal metabolic rate, higher in:
Men
Heavy people
Active people
Young people
69
Q

BMI

A

Body mass index = Mass (kg) ÷ height ^2 (m)

<20 = underweight
20 - 24.9 = healthy
25 - 29.9 = obese

70
Q

Waist:Hip

A

Waist circumference ÷ hip circumference = Waist:Hip

Men shouldn’t have a ratio above 0.9
Women shouldn’t have a ratio above 0.85

71
Q

How are age and gender a risk factor of CVD

A

Risk is higher in men

As arteries age they lose elasticity and are more prone to damage

72
Q

How is high salt intake a risk factor of CVD

A

High salt in diet causes kidneys to retain water, higher fluid levels in blood raises bp which is associated with CVD

73
Q

How can taking antioxidant reduce risk of CVD

A

Unstable radicals (atoms with an unpaired electron) can damage genetic material + enzymes, vitamins can protect against radical damage

74
Q

How is smoking a risk factor of CVD

A

Carbon monoxide from smoke binds to haemoglobin instead of Oxygen, heart pumps faster in order to supply enough O2 to cells.

Nicotine causes adrenalin to be released, narrowing arteries and raising bp

Chemicals in smoke can lead to atherosclerosis

75
Q

How is inactivity a risk factor of CVD

A

Moderate exercise helps keep a low bp, also increases HDL cholesterol without increasing LDL cholesterol

Helps maintain healthy weight

76
Q

How is sudden exposure to stress a risk factor of CVD

A

Sudden exposure to stress releases adrenalin, which causes arteries to constrict - raising bp

77
Q

How is excessive alcohol intake a risk factor of CVD

A

Can increase weight/bp and cause irregular heartbeats , damages liver’s ability to remove fats/lipids

Moderate intake can increase HDL cholesterol

78
Q

Treatments for CVD - lifestyle changes

A 
Stopping smoking
moderate use of alcohol
maintaining low bp
maintaining healthy BMI
Regular cardiovascular exercise
79
Q

Treatments for CVD - dietary changes

A 
Reduced saturated fats 
More polyunsaturated fats 
Reduced cholesterol 
Reduced salt 
More non-starch polysaccharides 
More fruits and veg
80
Q

Treatments for CVD - lower cholesterol in diet

A

Plant sterols and stanols are found in yoghurt and margarines, they have a similar structure to cholesterol.

Lowers blood cholesterol.

best when consumed at recommended amounts.

81
Q

Treatments for CVD - how do statins reduce blood cholesterol

A

It blocks enzymes in liver that makes cholesterol and LDLs.
Reduces inflammation of artery walls.
Can cause dizziness, joint pain, liver damage, headaches and muscle inflammation.

82
Q

How do diuretics treat high bp

A

Increases amounts of urine made by kidneys reducing excess fluid and salt in the body. Leads to decrease in blood plasma volume and cardiac output therefor decreasing bp.

Can cause:
Dizziness
Nausea
Muscle cramps

83
Q

How does aspirin (Platelet inhibitory drug) reduce blood clots + side effects

A

Makes platelets less sticky, less able to form clots

Side effects:
Blood in urine
Nose bleeds
Heavy bleeding from cuts

84
Q

How does warfarin (anticoagulant) reduce blood clots + side effects

A

Prevents prothrombin being made in body, no clotting cascade

Side effects:
Sudden back pain
Bleeding gums
Difficulty breathing

Biology (6 decks)

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