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Aqa a level chemistry > Topic 1: Atomic structure (physical chemistry) > Flashcards

Topic 1: Atomic structure (physical chemistry) Flashcards

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1
Q

What do the chemical properties of elements depend on

A

electronic configuration

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2
Q

What does the arrangement of electrons in energy levels link to

A

the way elements are organised in the periodic table

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3
Q

How can chemists measure the mass of atoms and molecules to a high degree of accuracy

A

By using a mass spectrometer (time of flight)

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4
Q

What is the mass and charge of protons

A

Mass = 1
Charge = +1

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5
Q

What is the mass and charge of electrons

A

Mass = 1/1835
Charge = -1

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6
Q

What is the mass and charge of neutrons

A

Mass = 1
Charge = 0 (neutral)

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7
Q

What is the overall charge of the nucleus of an atom

A

positive (contains protons and neutrons)

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8
Q

What is the overall charge of an atom

A

Neutral (positive and negative charges cancel eachother out)

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9
Q

What is an isotope

A

isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons

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10
Q

what does a mass spectrometer give accurate information about

A

relative isotopic mass and relative abundance of isotopes

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11
Q

What are the steps for time of flight

A

Ionisation, acceleration, ion drift, detection

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12
Q

What is ionisation energy

A

the amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous ions.

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13
Q

what are cations

A

positive ions

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14
Q

What are anions

A

negative ions

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15
Q

what does the period number show

A

the amount of energy levels

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16
Q

What does the group number show

A

the amount of electrons in the outer level

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17
Q

how do you calculate mr

A

the mean mass of an atom / 1/12 x mean mass of a c-12 isotope

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18
Q

how do cations and anions form

A

cations by losing an electron
anions by gaining an electron

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19
Q

what are polyatomic ions

A

ions that possess more than one atom but have one overall charge

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20
Q

what is an ionic compound

A

when a negative ion joins with a positive ion

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21
Q

How do you work out ionic formula

A

drop the charges then swap

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22
Q

Define relative atomic mass

A

the average mass of an atom of an element relative to 1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon-12

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23
Q

State two features of the current model that arent shown in Rutherford’s model

A

-the current model includes protons and neutrons
-the current model shows electrons in different energy levels

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24
Q

Which atom contains only two unpaired electrons

A

oxygen

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25
Q

State two differences between the plum pudding model and the model of atomic structure used today

A

-nucleus contains protons and neutrons
-electrons are now arranged in energy levels

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26
Q

State which of the elements magnesium and aluminium has the lower first ionisation energy

A

Aluminium has the lower first ionisation energy as it’s outer electron is in the 3rd energy level. This means that the outer electron is easily lost.

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27
Q

What does time of flight record

A

the time it takes for ions of each isotope to reach a detector

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28
Q

What occurs during the first step of TOF

A

ionisation –> a sample of an element is vapourised and injected into the mass spectrometer where a high voltage is passed over the chamber. This causes electrons to be removed from the atoms creating +1 ions. Or the sample is hit with high energy electrons that knock an electron off.

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29
Q

What is the second stage of TOF

A

Acceleration –> these positively charged ions are then accelerated to a negatively charged detection plate

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30
Q

What occurs during the third stage of TOF

A

Ion drift –> the ions are then deflected by a magnetic field into a curved path. The radius of their path is dependent on their charge and mass of the ion

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31
Q

What occurs during the final stage of TOF

A

Detection –> when the positive ions hit the negatively charged detection plate they gain an electron thus producing a current. The size of the current is proportional to the relative abundance of an isotopes

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32
Q

how do you calculate kinetic energy

A

Ke = 1/2mv^2

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33
Q

How do you calculate velocity

A

square root 2Ke / m (mass)

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34
Q

How do you calculate time

A

distance (length) / velocity

distance / square root 2Ke / m

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35
Q

What are the positive ions called

A

molecular ions

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36
Q

complete the sentence —> the heavier the ion

A

the slower it will accelerate and the longer it will take to hit the detector

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37
Q

What is time of flight proportional to

A

square root the mass of the ions

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38
Q

what are the two ways a sample can be ionised

A

either electron impact or electrospray ionisationw

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39
Q

what does abundance tell us

A

how common each isotope is

the size of current is proportional to the abundance

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40
Q

true or false –> all ions with the same charge have the same kinetic energy as eachother

A

true

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41
Q

what is m/z ratio

A

the ratio of the mass of each ion to its charge

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42
Q

define empirical formula

A

the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound

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43
Q

Explain how ions are accelerated, detected and abundanced in a mass spectrometer

A

-ions are accelerated by attraction to negatively charged plate
-the ions are detected by gaining an electron
-abundance is proportional to the size of current flowing in the detector

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44
Q

Describe how ions are formed in a mass spectrometer

A

1) electrospray ionisation –> a sample is dissolved in a volatile solvent. The sample is then passed through a positvley charged needle thus causing each molecule gaining a proton

2) electron impact –> high energy electrons are fired at the sample which then knocks off an electron thus forming a positive ion

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45
Q

What are the two types of ionisation

A

electron impact and electrospray ionisation

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46
Q

Why is it necessary to ionise a molecule when measuring their mass

A

-ions only will interact with and be accelerated by an electric field
-only ions would be attracted to the negatively charged plate
-only ions will created a current

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47
Q

What is the purpose of mass spectrometry

A

to identify the masses of unknown chemical compounds

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48
Q

How are we able to determine the identity of a compound by knowing its mass

A

each compound has its own relative formula mass. By knowing the mass we can work out the elements present.

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49
Q

What is a summary of how the mass spectrometer works

A

-a gas sample enters the spectrometer
-a filament in the spectrometer ionises the gas using high energy electrons
-the ions are accelerated with an electric field
-the lighter ions will travel faster
-ions are separated and deflected by mass using a magnetic field

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50
Q

what is the equation for electron impact

A

X(g) –> X+(g) + e-

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51
Q

What occurs during electron impact

A

an electron is knocked off thus forming a positive ion

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52
Q

what is the equation for electrospray ionisation

A

X (g) + H+ (g) —> XH+ (g)

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53
Q

why are positive ions accelerated

A

so they all have the same kinetic energy

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54
Q

what type of compounds can only be used in a mass spectrometer

A

gaseous compounds

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55
Q

what does the flight of each particle depend on

A

velocity

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56
Q

What occurs during detection

A

1) the positive ion hits a negatively charged electric plate. When they hit the detector plate the positive ions gain electrons from the plate

2) this generates an electric current. (note if there were not ions, this would not be possible)

3) the abundance of ions is proportional to the size of current

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57
Q

what is the m/z ratio

A

the mass of ions (mass to charge)

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58
Q

What does each peak on the spectrum represent

A

an isotope

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59
Q

How do you calculate relative isotopic mass

A

1) calculate percentage abundance of unknown isotope
2) input values into equation
3) rearrange

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60
Q

How many isotopes does chlorine have

A

2
35Cl-35Cl +
35Cl-37Cl+ 37Cl-35Cl+
37Cl-37Cl+

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61
Q

How many isotopes does bromine have

A

2
81Br and 79Br

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62
Q

what is the abundance of chlorine 35 and 37

A

35 = 75%
37 = 25%

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63
Q

Define diatomic

A

a molecule possessing two molecules that are identical

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64
Q

What is ionisation energy

A

ionisation energy is the amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous ions

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65
Q

What are the units of ionisation energy

A

KJ/mol

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66
Q

do group 1 elements have a lower or higher ionisation energy than nobel gases

A

lower

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67
Q

What is first ionisation energy affected by

A

-size of nuclear charge
-distance of outer electron from nucleus (atomic radius)
-shielding effect of inner electrons
-spin pair repulsion

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68
Q

what happens to ionisation energy across a period

A

it increases

69
Q

what happens to ionisation energy down a group

A

it decreases

70
Q

why does ionisation energy increase across a period

A

-atomic radius decreases –> outer shell is pulled closer to the nucleus
-becomes harder to remove an electron as more energy is needed

71
Q

Why is there a large decrease in ionisation energy from one period to another

A

There is increased distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons as you have added a new shell

There is increased shielding by inner electrons because of the added shell

These two factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge

72
Q

why does ionisation energy decrease down a group

A

Ionisation energy down a group decreases , distance between nucleus and outer electron increases, shielding increases, easier to remove outer electron

73
Q

What is successive ionisation energy

A

the sequence of ionisation energies

74
Q

why do successive ionisation energies increase

A

once you have removed an electron you have formed a positive ion. as more electrons are removed the attractive forces increase due to decreases in shielding and an increase in proton to electron ratio. the increase in ionisation energy is dependent on electron configuration

75
Q

why is it more difficult to remove electrons from principle quantum shells that get closer to the nucleus

A

as there is less shielding and an increase in attractive forces between the electrons and nuclear charge.

76
Q

What can successive ionisation energy data be used for

A

Predict or confirm the simple electronic configuration of elements

Confirm the number of electrons in the outer shell of an element

Deduce the Group an element belongs to in the Periodic Table

By analyzing where the large jumps appear and the number of electrons removed when these large jumps occur, the electron configuration of an atom can be determined

77
Q

Where are electrons found

A

energy levels/quanta shells

78
Q

how many electrons are found in the first shell

A

2

79
Q

How many electrons are found in the second shell

A

8

80
Q

How many electrons are found in the third shell

A

18

81
Q

How many electrons are found in the fourth shell

A

32

82
Q

How many electrons are found in each subshell (s, p ,d , f)

A

s = 2
p = 6
d = 10
f = 14

83
Q

From their electron configuration how can you tell that both neon and krypton are noble gases

A

Both electron configurations end in p6 = full outer shell

84
Q

what do the different blocks for elements tell us

A

the final sub shell of that element

85
Q

what is the lowest energy level and why

A

N=1 as the closer to the nucleus the lower the energy of that level

86
Q

what is an exception when filling sub shells and why

A

4s is filled before 3d as 4s has lower amounts of energy

87
Q

what are the 2 exceptions of elements

A

Copper and chromium –> prefer to have 1 electron in 4s and 1 in 3d

88
Q

What is the electronic configuration of copper

A

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

89
Q

What is the electronic configuration of chromium

A

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5

90
Q

What can the sub shells be further split into

A

orbitals

91
Q

what are orbitals

A

regions where there is a high chance of finding an electron in a sub shell

92
Q

what is the shorthand version of electronic configuration

A

part of the notation is substituted with the previous noble gas

93
Q

what type of reaction is ionisation

A

endothermic

94
Q

what is the attraction between the positive nucleus and electrons called

A

electrostatic force of attraction

95
Q

true or false - removing electrons requires energy

A

true

96
Q

what is the success criteria of first ionisation energy

A

-must be one mole of the element

-must form a plus one charge

-must be in a gaseous state

97
Q

what is successive ionisation energy

A

the energies required to remove any further electron

98
Q

Define second ionisation energy

A

the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous +1 ions to form one mole of 2+ ions in the gaseous state

99
Q

What is the interaction between the nucleus and electrons called

A

electrostatic forces of attraction

100
Q

what are the 2 types of forces occuring in an atom involving the nucleus and electrons

A

-electrostatic forces of attraction between nucleus and electrons
-repulsion between electrons on the energy levels

101
Q

what does if mean if an element has a higher ionisation energy

A

there would be a stronger electrostatic force of attraction as more energy would be required to remove the electron

102
Q

what does the amount of energy required to overcome the electrosatic force of attraction depend on

A

-nuclear charge
-atomic radius
-shielding
-attraction

103
Q

would Li or Li+ have a greater nuclear charge and why

A

Li+ has the highest ionisation energy and therefore has a greater nuclear charge than Li due to a higher proton:electron ratio. This means that there is a greater attraction between the nucleus and outer electron so would require more energy to overcome.

104
Q

what affects nuclear charge

A

the proton:electron ratio
(more protons than electrons = higher nuclear charge) –> only for ions
or
atomic charge

105
Q

Explain why atomic radius decreases across period 3 from sodium to chlorine

A

nuclear charge increases which means that shielding is similar
outer electron is pulled closer to the nucleus due to attraction

106
Q

explain why the second IE of calcium is lower than the second IE of potassium

A

calcium’s outermost electron is further from the nucleus so there is more shielding

107
Q

define atomic radius

A

the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron

108
Q

what happens to ionisation down a group

A

decreases

109
Q

what happens to ionisation energy across a period

A

increases

110
Q

what happens to ionisation energy down a group in terms of atomic radius and shielding

A

-down a group ionisation energy decreases as the outermost electron becomes further from the nucleus so the attraction decreases, the attraction is also shielded

111
Q

what element in group 1 has the highest ionisation energy

A

hydrogen as atomic radius is smallest so the outermost electron is closer to the nucleus. This means that attraction is greater

112
Q

what happens to ionisation energy across a period (long answer)

A

ionisation energy increases as atomic number increases so nuclear charge increases

-attraction is stronger which brings the shell closer to the nucleus reducing the atomic radius

113
Q

define shielding

A

when there repulsion due to inner electrons shield, the nucleus from the outer electrons. It increases with increasing number of occupied shellsw

114
Q

what happens to shielding down a group

A

as you go down group shielding increases so atomic radius increases so there is weaker electrosatic force of attraction between the nucleus and outer electron

115
Q

how can you tell what group an element is in by their ionisation energy

A

-the group in which can element can be found is shown by where the first big jump in ionisation energy occurs e.g there is a big jump between the 5th and 6th ionisation energy, therefore the element is in group 5

116
Q

Explain why the atomic radius decreases across period three from sodium to chlorine

A

nuclear charge increases which means shielding is similar

117
Q

where would the big jump be if an element was in group 1

A

in the 2nd ionisation energy

118
Q

why is there a jump shown in an IE graph

A

the next electron to be removed is closer to the nucleus and therefore experiences a greater electrosatic force of attraction. There will be less shielding.

119
Q

what does it mean if more electrons are being removed in terms of NASA

A

the p:e ratio increases which means the nuclear charge of the ion increases

120
Q

explain the trends in ionisation energy across period 2 from Li to Ne

A

-1st ionisation energy increases across a period due to an increased nuclear charge

-shielding is similar and there is a stronger attraction between the nucleus and outer electron

-There is some deviation between Be and B (b lower than be) as 2p is higher in energy than 2s

-There is also a dip between N and O (o is lower than n) as 2 electrons in 2p need a pair which causes repulsion

121
Q

what are the exceptions for ionisation energy in period 3

A

dips at Al and S

122
Q

how can the dip in IE graphs be explained

A

through electronic configuration

123
Q

why does Al have a lower ionisation energy than Mg in terms of electronic configuration

A

This is because the electron for Al is removed from a 3p orbital. 3p is higher in energy than 3s so it takes less IE to remove the electron. 3p subshell also experiences more shielding as it is further for the nucleus so electrosatic force of attraction is weakened.

124
Q

how many orbitals are there in the s,p and d subshells

A

s = 1 orbital
p = 3 orbitals
d = 5 orbitals

125
Q

why is the second ionisation energy of boron greater than the first ionisation energy

A

the electron being removed is closer to the nucleus

126
Q

why do elements have different chemical properties

A

different electronic configuration

127
Q

true of false - the element with the lowest mz value is deflected most by the magnetic field

A

true

128
Q

why is there a dip in IE graph for sulfur

A

paired electron in 3p orbital results in spin pair repulsion

129
Q

what are the requirements for box notation

A

must be spin paired, must fill up orbitals singly first then paired

130
Q

what is more stable the 3p3 subshell or 3p4

A

3p3 orbital is more stable than 3p4 orbital as electrons are more stable unpaired than paired electrons due to less spin pair repulsion

131
Q

what has a lower ionisation energy 3p3 or 3p4 orbital

A

3p4 orbital has lower ionisation energy. Due to spin pair repulsion in the p orbital it is more unstable. this means that less energy is required to remove an electron

132
Q

why does sulfur have a lower ionisation energy than phosphorus

A

sulfur has a lower ionisation energy than phosphorus as the electron removed is from a 3p paired orbital; there is added repulsion

133
Q

why does atomic radius increase across period 3

A

periodicity

134
Q

define periodicity

A

a repeated trend in properties of elements across a period

135
Q

why is ionic radius smaller for positive ions

A

as each ion has one fewer shells of electrons compared to their respective atoms. There is less electron-electron repulsion and nuclear charge is higher due to greater p:e ratio

136
Q

define melting point

A

solid to liquid

137
Q

what are the factors affecting high melting point

A

strength of giant covalent bonds, ionic bonds or metallic bonds being broken and therefore the number that are breaking

138
Q

what are the factors affecting low melting point

A

strength of intermolecular forces and therefore the number of intermolecular forces being broken

139
Q

why will Al3+ have a smaller atomic radius than Na+

A

Al3+ will have smaller atomic radius as it has greater nuclear charge and therefore stronger electrosatic force of attraction.

140
Q

why does melting point increase from Na to Al

A

ions have greater ionic charge and are smaller than Na. Aluminum has more delocalised electrons so greater charge density

Greater ionic charge
Smaller atomic radius
More delocalised electrons

141
Q

define electronegativity

A

the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a covalent bond

142
Q

true or false - the same elements have the same electronegativity

A

true

143
Q

what happens to electronegativity across a period

A

it increases - electrons are more attracted as atomic radius decreases. Shielding is similar and nuclear charge increases

144
Q

what happens to electronegativity down a group

A

decreases

145
Q

what happens to melting points across period 3

A

gradual increase from Na to Al due to more delocalised electrons so there is an electrosatic attraction between those electrons and positive metal ions

Huge increase to Si due to giant covalent molecule

Decrease from P to Cl due to simple covalent bond so lower melting point

Argon has lowest melting point as it is monoatomic so has very weak intermolecular forces

146
Q

identify the S block element that has the highest first ionisation energy

A

Be (beryllium)

147
Q

true or false - the greater the mass the greater the kinetic energy

A

true

148
Q

how does the graph of successive ionisation energy give evidence for shells

A

-big jumps show that an electron is being removed from an inner subshell

149
Q

Deduce which of Na+ and Mg2+ is the smaller ion

A

Mg2+ is the smaller ion –> greater number of protons so stronger attraction between the nucleus and outer electron. This means that the outer electron is pulled closer to the nucleus

150
Q

true or false -> the isotope with the largest mass/mz value will be deflected most

A

false –> isotope/ion with the smallest mass/mz value will be deflected the most

151
Q

what are the two most important aspects of NASA when mentioning ionisation trends across a period

A

-nuclear charge
-attraction

(sometimes shielding)

152
Q

how many electrons are in a D orbital

A

2

153
Q

how is an element classified as its s,p,d,f block in the periodic table

A

according to
its position in the Periodic Table, which is determined by
its proton number.

154
Q

Equation for the 3rd ionisation energy of Mg

A

Mg2+ (g) –> Mg3+ (g) + e-

155
Q

Explain why the third ionisation energy of magnesium is much higher than the
second ionisation energy of magnesium.

A

-Electron being removed is closer to the nucleus
-greater attraction and is less shielded

156
Q

how many isotopes does hydrogen have and what are they

A

3 –> Protium (1), (Deuteurium (2), Tritium (3)

157
Q

identify the element in period 3 that has the highest 2nd ionisation energy

A

Na

158
Q

Identify the element in period 4 with the largest atomic radius

A

Potassium (K)
Smallest nuclear charge. Similar shielding

159
Q

what colour is hydrated copper sulfate

A

blue

160
Q

equation for the third ionisation energy of managnese

A

Mn2+ (g) → Mn3+ (g) + e−

161
Q

deduce the formula of the compound that contains 2+ ions and 3- ions that both have the same electronic configuration as argon

A

Ca3P2

162
Q

why is mg2+ a smaller ion

A

-larger nuclear change
-same shielding

163
Q

state how the relative molecular mass (mr) of a covalent compound is obtained from its mass spectrum

A

highest mz value = mr

164
Q

Explain why a sodium atom is larger than a chlorine atom

A

-a chlorine atom has more protons in its nucleus than a sodium atom
-both have 3 shells of electrons
-electrons more strongly attracted to Chlorine nucleus so smaller atomic radius

165
Q

true or false - electrospray ionisation is used for larger molecules so fragmentation doesnt occur

A

true

166
Q

why is more energy required

A

-electron removed from subshell closer to nucleus
-electron being removed is less shielded

167
Q

concentration

A

moles / volume

168
Q

p6 = more energy = why?

A

p6 = noble gas
unreactive = more energy required to remove an electron

169
Q

ion that has a charge of 2+ with the same electronic configuration as krypton

A

Sr2+

Aqa a level chemistry (19 decks)

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