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Biology > Topic 1 > Flashcards

Topic 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the structure of a water molecule

A

It has an oxygen molecule with 2 hydrogen molecules that are at a 104.5 degree angle from the oxygen

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2
Q

What bonds do water molecules have

A

Hydrogen bonds

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3
Q

What are the 8 properties of water

A
  • water is a polar solvent making it excellent at dissolving ionic substances
  • an excellent transport medium
  • ice is less dense than water
  • water molecules are cohesive
  • water molecules are adhesive
  • water is slow to absorb and release heat
  • water can’t be compressed
  • water has a very high surface tension
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4
Q

What is every carbohydrate made up of

A

Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

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5
Q

What are the 3 main groups of carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides, polysaccharides and disaccharides

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6
Q

What is a monosaccharide

A

They are simple sugars in which there is 1 oxygen atom and 2 hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom present in the molecule. The general formula for this is CH2O

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7
Q

What is the structure of alpha and beta glucose

A

Look on page 19 for answer

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8
Q

What are disaccharides

A

Disaccharides are made up of two monosaccharides joined together in a condensation reaction

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9
Q

What is the link between two monosaccharides called

A

Glycosidic bond

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10
Q

What are oligosaccharides

A

Molecules with a 3-10 chain

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11
Q

How is the glycosidic bond between 2 monosaccharides split

A

By a hydrolysis reaction ( the breaking of water)

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12
Q

What 2 compounds is starch made up of

A

Amylose and amylopectin

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13
Q

What molecule is starch made up of

A

Many alpha glucose molecules

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14
Q

What is the difference between amylose and amylopectin

A

Amylose is made up of purely alpha glucose molecules joined by 1-4 glycosidic bonds whereas amylopectin is joined by 1-4 glycosidic bonds with a few 1-6 glycosidic bonds which results in branching chains

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15
Q

Why do athletes like starchy foods

A

Because they have both amylopectin and amylose and amylopectin releases glucose for respiration rapidly whereas amylose releases glucose more slowly over a long period to keep you going

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16
Q

Where is glycogen stored

A

It is stored in the muscles and liver

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17
Q

What is the structure of glycogen

A

They have 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds giving it many side branches

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18
Q

What is the structure of cellulose

A

They have beta glucose molecules and are held together by 1-4 glycosidic bonds where one of the monomers has been inverted (turned over) so the bonding can take place. They also have many hydrogen bonds

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19
Q

What is the difference between fats and oils

A

Fats are solid at room temp and oils are liquid at room temp

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20
Q

What do all lipid molecules contain

A

Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen however they have fewer oxygen atoms than carbohydrates

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21
Q

What are the 2 organic chemicals that fats and oils are made up of

A

Fatty acids and glycerol

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22
Q

What bond combines fatty acids and glycerol

A

Ester bonds

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23
Q

What is the chemical formula for glycerol

A

C3H8O3

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24
Q

What do all fatty acids have

A

They have a long hydrocarbon chain a pleated backbone of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached and a carboxyl group (COOH) at the end

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25
Q

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

A

In saturated fatty acids each carbon atom is joined to the next one by a single covalent bond whereas unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double covalent bonds in them

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26
Q

How are Ester bonds formed

A

A fat or oil results when glycerol combine with 1,2 or 3 fatty acids .A bond is formed in a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group and one of the hydroxyl groups of the glycerol (-OH). A molecule of water is removed and the resulting bond is an Ester bond

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27
Q

What is the structure for an amino acid

A

They always have an amino group (-NH2), and a carboxyl group attached to a carbon atom. They also have an r group which depends on the amino acid

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28
Q

How are proteins formed from amino acids

A

Amino acids react between there amino group and carboxyl group of another. They join in a condensation reaction. A peptide bond is formed when they join and a dipeptide is formed. When more amino acids join this forms a polypeptide chain and this folds to form a protein

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29
Q

What other bonds can there be in proteins

A

Hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds and ionic bonds

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30
Q

How are hydrogen bonds formed in proteins

A

There are tiny negative charges on the oxygen of the carboxyl group and positive charges on the hydrogen atoms of the amino group. The opposite charges attract forming a hydrogen bond

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31
Q

How are disulfide bonds formed in proteins

A

They form when two cysteine molecules are close together in the structure of a polypeptide. Oxidation reaction takes place between the 2 sulfur containing groups resulting in a strong covalent bond known as a disulfide bond

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32
Q

How are ionic bonds formed

A

They form between strongly positive and negative amino acid side chains found buried deep in the protein molecule

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33
Q

What are the 4 structures of proteins

A

Primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure

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34
Q

What is the 1st structure of proteins

A

The first structure is a chain of polypeptides

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35
Q

What is the second structure of proteins

A

The second structure is alpha helix and beta pleated sheets which have a hydrogen bond

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36
Q

What is the third structure of proteins

A

The 3rd structure has ionic bonds,hydrogen bonds,disulfide bonds and hydrophobic interactions

37
Q

What is the fourth structure of proteins

A

The 4th structure has different subunits and makes up a quaternary structure

38
Q

What is the structure of nucleotides

A

They have a 5 carbon penthouse sugar, a nitrogen containing base and a phosphate group

39
Q

How are nucleotides joined together

A

They are joined by condensation reactions which removes 2 water molecules

40
Q

What are the 2 types of nucleotides

A

Purine and pyramidine

41
Q

What is a purine base

A

A purine base has 2 nitrogen containing rings, adenine and guanine and they have a weak base

42
Q

What is a pyrimidine base

A

A base containing 1 nitrogen containing ring, thymine, cytosine and uracil and they have a weak base

43
Q

What is the structure of ATP

A

It’s a nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups attached

44
Q

Where do we get the energy from in this atp molecule

A

The third phosphate bond is broken down in a hydrolysis reaction to get this energy

45
Q

Why is ATP considered the universal energy supplier

A

Because when there is no ATP then the results are fatal

46
Q

What is the function of nucleic acids

A

They carry all the info needed to form new cells

47
Q

What is DNA

A

DNA is a code from which parts are copied into mRNA and used to direct the production of proteins that builds the cell and controls its action

48
Q

What are nucleic acids

A

They are chains of nucleotides linked together by condensation reactions that produce phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of another

49
Q

What are the similarities and differences between the DNA and RNA

A

DNA has a double helix whereas RNA has a single helix
DNA has the bases ATGC whereas RNA has the bases AUGC
In DNA A-T has 2 hydrogen bonds and G-C has 3 hydrogen bonds in RNA they have the same hydrogen bonds
They both have a backbone

50
Q

How does conservative replication work

A

Both parent strands split and copy. The two parent strands pair back up and the two new strands pair up to make a DNA copy

51
Q

How does semi conservative replication work

A

Both parent strands split and copy. Then an original and a new strand of DNA pair up each time

52
Q

Which method out of conservative and semi conservative replication was proven to be correct

A

Semi conservative

53
Q

How does DNA make copies of itself

A
  • When DNA replicates they 2 strands of the DNA molecule unzip along the line of hydrogen bonds. This is brought about by the enzyme DNA helicase
  • the exposed bases attract free DNA nucleotides and new hydrogen bonds are formed between matching base pairs
  • DNA polymerase lines up and catalyses the linking up of the nucleotides along the template strand
  • DNA Ligase catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the 2 strands of DNA. The result is two new strands of DNA identical with the original piece
54
Q

What is a gene

A

A gene is a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule coding for a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

55
Q

What percentage of our genome is used for coding

A

1.5-2%

56
Q

What is a cordon

A

A cordon is a triplet of DNA or RNA bases

57
Q

What is an extron and intron

A

Extrinsic are sections of coding DNA and introns are sections of non coding DNA

58
Q

What Is non overlapping code

A

It’s a code where the DNA bases don’t overlap with each other

59
Q

What is degenerate code

A

It is code when only the first 2 of the 3 nucleotides matter in determining amino acids

60
Q

What are the different types of RNA

A

mRNA , tRNA , rRNA

61
Q

What is the function of mRNA

A

It’s found in the nucleus and is a complementary copy of the DNA and it is involved in transcription and translation

62
Q

What is the function of tRNA

A

It’s found in the cytoplasm and one part has a sequence of 3 bases that is complementary to the mRNA strand. The other end carries a specific amino acid

63
Q

What is the function of rRNA

A

It makes up about 50% of the structure of the ribosome and it’s made in the nucleus and combined with proteins to form ribosomes

64
Q

How does transcription work

A
  • RNA polymerase binds to the DNA in a non coding region and separates the strands
  • it moves along the DNA template strand or anti sense strand and unravels it
  • RNA nucleotides Line up alongside the exposed anti sense strand and initially form hydrogen bonds with the DNA bases
  • RNA polymerase catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the sugars and phosphate group. There is a length of mRNA formed
65
Q

How does translation work

A
  • the mRNA strand leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores. The mRNA attaches to a ribosome
  • a ribosome moves along the mRNA strand three bases at a time each triplet is a codon
  • at each codon a tRNA matches up. Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid. The ribosome joins the amino acids together to form a polypeptide
66
Q

What are the positive effects of gene mutations

A

They are responsible for genetic variation and can create advantageous proteins which could make an organism have reproductive advantages

67
Q

What are the neutral effects of gene mutations

A

They can have no effects on the protein produced and they don’t change chance of survival

68
Q

What are the negative effects of gene mutations

A

The change in amino acid that a triplet codes for can have damaging effects on an organism and could result in a non functioning protein

69
Q

What is a mutation

A

A permanent change in the DNA of an organism

70
Q

What are the 3 types of point mutation

A

Substitution, deletion or insertion and triplet insertion or deletion

71
Q

What are substitution mutations

A

Where you swap one base for another . They can change the amino acid therefore the protein

72
Q

What are deletion/insertion mutations

A

Where a base is completely lost or added which results in all amino acids changing

73
Q

What are chromosomal mutations

A

Changes in the positions of genes within the chromosome

74
Q

What are whole chromosome mutations

A

Where an entire chromosome is either lost or duplicated

75
Q

What are non coding mutations

A

If there is a mutation in this part it can result in RNA polymerase not binding very well resulting in not enough of a protein. Alternatively it binds too well and you end up with too much protein

76
Q

What are enzymes

A

Enzymes are biological catalysts that control the rate of reactions that take place in individual cells and in whole organisms

77
Q

What is the structure of enzymes

A

They are globular proteins and so are made up of amino acids. Their polypeptide folds up to form a unique shape which can catalyses specific reactions

78
Q

What are anabolic reactions

A

Reactions that build up molecules

79
Q

What are catabolic reactions

A

Reactions that break down molecules

80
Q

What are intracellular enzymes and extra cellular enzymes

A

Enzymes that work inside the cell and enzymes that work outside the cell

81
Q

How do enzymes speed up chemical reactions

A

They lower the activation energy required for a reaction to take place

82
Q

What is the induced fit hypothesis

A

This is where the active site has a distinct shape but it is still flexible. Once the substrate enters the active site the shape of the site modified to form around it. Once the products have left the active site will revert to its inactive relaxed form

83
Q

What are the factors that affect enzymes

A

Temperature, substrate concentration and PH

84
Q

How does temperature affect enzymes

A

Temp causes thermal energy to be converted into kinetic energy causing a higher chance of particles colliding. It then denatures with the bonds breaking causing activity to decrease

85
Q

How does substrate concentration affect enzymes

A

When there is more substrate than enzymes there is a longer rate of reaction. But when there is either more enzymes or less substrate the reaction takes place quicker

86
Q

How does PH affect enzymes

A

As PH approaches optimum it increases then it will decrease once past optimum. The h+ ions and OH- ions will take away the electrons which affects the tertiary structure.

87
Q

What is reversible inhibition and what two types are there

A

This is when an inhibitor affects an enzyme in a way that does not permanently damage it the two types are competitive and non competitive inhibition

88
Q

What is competitive inhibition

A

This is when the inhibitor molecule is similar in shape to the substrate molecule so it competes with the substrate for binding at the active sites of the enzymes

Biology (14 decks)

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