Toddlerhood Flashcards
brain development
Steep increase in synaptic density- number of synaptic connections among neurons
Multiply intensely in the first 3 years, and toddlerhood is when peak production of new synapses is reached in the frontal lobes
After the peak of synaptic density (3YO), synaptic pruning begins
Removes one third of synapses in the frontal cortex from early childhood to adolescence, then slower rate continues into adulthood
EEG measures electrical activity of cerebral cortex
Every time a synapse fires it emits a tiny burst of electricity, which allows researchers to measure the overall activity of the cerebral cortex
Found sharp increase in overall cortical activity from 18-24MO
fMRI
machine that uses a magnetic field to record changes in blood flow and oxygen use in the brain in response to different kinds of stimulation
Toddlers showed greater frontal lobe activity in response to speech than older kids, reflecting brain’s readiness for rapid language acquisition during toddler period
gross motor development
9-16MO stand alone 9-17 walk without support 11-19 stand on one leg 11-21 climb onto chairs, beds, up stairs etc. 13-17 walk backward 14-22 run 17-30 jump in place 16-30 walk on tiptoes 22-36 walk up and down stairs
fine motor development
7-15MO hold writing instrument 8-16 coordinate actions of both hands 10-19 build tower of two blocks 10-21 scribble vigorously 12-18 feed self with spoon 15-23 build tower of 3-4 blocks 20-28 draw straight line on paper 24-32 brush teeth 26-34 build tower of 8-10 blocks 29-37 copy circle
sensorimotor substages
Sensorimotor stage 5: Tertiary circular reactions
Sensorimotor stage 6: mental representations
Sensorimotor stage 5: Tertiary circular reactions
12-18MO
Intentionally try out different behaviours to see what the effects will be
Action intentional from beginning
Performed repeatedly
Sensorimotor stage 6: mental representations
18-24MO
First think about the possibilities and select the action most likely to achieve the desired outcome
Mental representation is the basis of the most important and most distinctly human cognitive abilities including language
object permanence
Develops further
Learn to avoid the A not B error and search for the object where they last saw it hidden
Toddlers have attained object permanence once they generally avoid this error
deferred imitations
ability to repeat actions observed at an earlier time
Means that when we observe something important to know, we can repeat it later ourselves
Pretend play
Piaget proposed that deferred imitation begins at 18MO, but later shown that deferred imitation of facial expressions reported as early as 6 weeks
6MO: can imitate a simple sequence of events a day later (taking off a puppet’s glove and shaking it to ring a bell inside)
if there is a longer delay, toddlers are better at it than infants
Shown sequence of events one month apart, 9MO only half remembered, 2/3 13MO remembered and all 20MO remembered
Hippocampus substantially matures in toddlerhood, may explain better deferred imitation
categorisation
mental representation in toddlerhood as the basis of categorisation
Even at few months old, babies can rudimentarily understand categories (patterns of looking at a series of images)
Becomes more advanced in toddlerhood
At 9MO did not categorise horses vs pencils, at 12MO some did, at 18MO all did
By 2YO, toddlers can go beyond the appearance of objects to categorise them on the basis of their functions or dualities
Could choose which box was Blickett based on light blinking
Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
difference between skills or tasks that children can accomplish alone and those they are capable of performing if guided by an adult or a more competent peer
Kids learn best if assistance provided is within this zone so that they need assistance at first but gradually can perform alone
private speech
self guiding and self directing comments children make to themselves as they learn in this zone
As they become more competent in what they are learning, private speech is internalised and decreased
Toddlerhood and early childhood critical as this is when they are more likely to use private speech and internalise it
scaffolding
degree of assistance provided to children in the zone of proximal development
Should decrease as children become more competent
Can occur at any age
guided participation
teaching interaction between two people, often an adult and a child, as they participate in a culturally valued activity
Language acquisition device
chomsky
innate feature of the brain that enables children to perceive and grasp quickly the grammatical rules in the language around them
Language 12-18 MO: slow expansion
12-18MO: Slow expansion First 6MO: steady but slow pace 12-18MO: 1-3 new words a week 10 words by 15MO 50 words by 18MO First 50 words tend to be part of toddler’s daily routines Speak in partial words 12-18MO: one word at a time, single word can have many meanings
holophrases
single word used to represent different forms of whole sentences
overextensions
have a single word represent a variety of related objects
underextensions
applying a general word to a specific object
Language 18-24 MO: Naming explosion
5 to 6 new words a week
Naming explosion or vocabulary spurt
Fast mapping: learning and remembering a word for an object after just one time of being told what the object is called
At 2YO: average vocabulary of 200 words
Girls increases faster
‘gone’ and ‘no’ popular
Gone shows object permanence
No shows budding sense of self
Learn to name one or two colours, at least 6 body parts and emotional states like tired or mad
Telegraphic speech: two word phrases that strip away connecting words
Comprehension also advances
At 15MO, could show where an object is only after question fully asked but at 24MO could do before sentence finished
24-36 MO: becoming adept at language
Use prepositions and categories
Decrease overextension and under extension
Telegraphic speech in three or four word statements
Short complete sentences
Most can speak clearly enough to make themselves understood about nearly anything they wish
Learned the rules of their language
overregulation
overregulation
applying grammatical rules even to words that are exceptions to the rule
emotion
Learn emotional self regulation
Learn to turn attention away from unpleasant stimulation
People around them soothe distress by cuddling or distraction
emotional self regulation advances in four ways
Develop behaviours that help regulate emotions (turning to trusted adult or clinging to comfort toy)
Use language to promote emotional self regulation (18MO use language to convey emotion, talking about feelings)
External requirements by others extend their capacity for emotional self regulation (parents begin to enforce rules)
Promoted by the development of the sociomoral emotions (becoming capable or guilt, shame and embarrassment motivates toddlers to avoid these; because they may be admonished by others for expressing primary emotions too strongly, learn self regulation to get approval)
birth of self
Although self awareness begins to develop in infancy, advances during toddlerhood
During second and third years, demonstrate self recognition
9-12MO would reach out and touch red dot placed on their nose but in the mirror as if it were someone else; 18MO would rub own nose
At same time as self recognition, begin to use personal pronouns and refer to themselves by own names
By second half of second year, have self reflection, capacity to think about one’s self as one would think about other persons and objects
Bowlby’s theory
Harlow’s monkey experiment
Bowlby used these three findings to conclude that bond between mum and child based on protection and care
Primary attachment figure: person who is sought out when a child experiences some kind of distress or threat in the environment
Children use their primary attachment figure as a secure base from which to explore surrounding environment
If a threat appears in the environment, attachment behaviour is activated and children seek direct physical contact with their attachment figure
Attachment develops gradually over first 2 years old life, culminating in a foal-corrected partnership in which both persons use language to communicate about the child’s needs and the primary attachment figure’s responses
Ainsworth strange experiment
12-24 MO
Secure attachment: mother secure base, separation causes crying, upon return greeted happily and hugged/held
Insecure-Avoidant attachment: little to no interaction with mum, no response to her departure and return, when picked up try to get down
Insecure resistant attachment: don’t explore while mum is present, great distress when leaving, ambivalence when returned- run to her but then push her away
Disorganised-disoriented attachment: added later by other researchers; dazed and detached when mum leaves, fearful when mum returns
Toddlers with secure attachments seemed delighted to see their mothers again after a separation and often sought physical contact with her, whereas toddlers with insecure attachments either responded little to her return (avoidant) or seemed both relieved and angry at her (resistant).
critiques of attachment theory
child effect’: overstates mums influence and understates Childs influence
Fails to recognise that children are born with different temperament
Parent-child relationships are reciprocal not just from parent to kid
Some said same across cultures, others say possible cultural bias
Cultural differences in dependency are misclassified as insecure avoidant (independence) or insecure resistant (highly dependent on mum, overprotective)
Weaning may impact security of attachment- suddenly showing sharp increase in insecurity and stranger anxiety
Also, attachment researchers describe how toddlers with secure attachments grow up to be children who are self-reliant, socially assertive, and have high self-esteem, but these traits are not viewed as virtues in all cultures
Autism
Autism: developmental disorder marked by a lack of interest in social relations, abnormal language development and repetitive behaviour
Main features of the diagnosis are: lack of interest in social relations, abnormal language development and repetitive behaviour
Low intelligence and may have intellectual disability
Usually diagnosis made between 18-30MO
At 8-10MO infants with autism show little or no evidence of normal social behaviours- no joint attention with parents, no pointing to objects to show others, or responding to own name
Diagnosis becomes more definite in toddlerhood with failure to develop language skills during a period usually for dramatic advances
Siblings
Attachment to sibling is secondary attachment rather than primary
In strange situation adapted, older sibling provided the emotional comfort and security of an attachment figure only when mum was gone
Following the birth of a younger sibling, often toddlers’ attachment to mother changes from secure to insecure
They may regress in toilet training or self feeding
If mums pay special attention to the toddler before the new baby arrives and explain the feelings and needs of the baby after the birth, toddlers respond more positively
Once younger siblings are able to talk and play, older siblings show less resentment
