Toddlerhood

Question 1

brain development

Answer 1

Steep increase in synaptic density- number of synaptic connections among neurons
Multiply intensely in the first 3 years, and toddlerhood is when peak production of new synapses is reached in the frontal lobes
After the peak of synaptic density (3YO), synaptic pruning begins
Removes one third of synapses in the frontal cortex from early childhood to adolescence, then slower rate continues into adulthood

Question 2

EEG measures electrical activity of cerebral cortex

Answer 2

Every time a synapse fires it emits a tiny burst of electricity, which allows researchers to measure the overall activity of the cerebral cortex
Found sharp increase in overall cortical activity from 18-24MO

Question 3

fMRI

Answer 3

machine that uses a magnetic field to record changes in blood flow and oxygen use in the brain in response to different kinds of stimulation
Toddlers showed greater frontal lobe activity in response to speech than older kids, reflecting brain’s readiness for rapid language acquisition during toddler period

Question 4

gross motor development

Answer 4

9-16MO stand alone 
9-17 walk without support 
11-19 stand on one leg 
11-21 climb onto chairs, beds, up stairs etc. 
13-17 walk backward
14-22 run 
17-30 jump in place 
16-30 walk on tiptoes 
22-36 walk up and down stairs

Question 5

fine motor development

Answer 5

7-15MO hold writing instrument 
8-16 coordinate actions of both hands 
10-19 build tower of two blocks 
10-21 scribble vigorously 
12-18 feed self with spoon 
15-23 build tower of 3-4 blocks 
20-28 draw straight line on paper 
24-32 brush teeth 
26-34 build tower of 8-10 blocks 
29-37 copy circle

Question 6

sensorimotor substages

Answer 6

Sensorimotor stage 5: Tertiary circular reactions

Sensorimotor stage 6: mental representations

Question 7

Sensorimotor stage 5: Tertiary circular reactions

Answer 7

12-18MO
Intentionally try out different behaviours to see what the effects will be
Action intentional from beginning
Performed repeatedly

Question 8

Sensorimotor stage 6: mental representations

Answer 8

18-24MO
First think about the possibilities and select the action most likely to achieve the desired outcome
Mental representation is the basis of the most important and most distinctly human cognitive abilities including language

Question 9

object permanence

Answer 9

Develops further
Learn to avoid the A not B error and search for the object where they last saw it hidden
Toddlers have attained object permanence once they generally avoid this error

Question 10

deferred imitations

Answer 10

ability to repeat actions observed at an earlier time
Means that when we observe something important to know, we can repeat it later ourselves
Pretend play
Piaget proposed that deferred imitation begins at 18MO, but later shown that deferred imitation of facial expressions reported as early as 6 weeks
6MO: can imitate a simple sequence of events a day later (taking off a puppet’s glove and shaking it to ring a bell inside) 
if there is a longer delay, toddlers are better at it than infants
Shown sequence of events one month apart, 9MO only half remembered, 2/3 13MO remembered and all 20MO remembered
Hippocampus substantially matures in toddlerhood, may explain better deferred imitation

Question 11

categorisation

Answer 11

mental representation in toddlerhood as the basis of categorisation
Even at few months old, babies can rudimentarily understand categories (patterns of looking at a series of images)
Becomes more advanced in toddlerhood
At 9MO did not categorise horses vs pencils, at 12MO some did, at 18MO all did
By 2YO, toddlers can go beyond the appearance of objects to categorise them on the basis of their functions or dualities
Could choose which box was Blickett based on light blinking

Question 12

Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development

Answer 12

difference between skills or tasks that children can accomplish alone and those they are capable of performing if guided by an adult or a more competent peer
Kids learn best if assistance provided is within this zone so that they need assistance at first but gradually can perform alone

Question 13

private speech

Answer 13

self guiding and self directing comments children make to themselves as they learn in this zone
As they become more competent in what they are learning, private speech is internalised and decreased
Toddlerhood and early childhood critical as this is when they are more likely to use private speech and internalise it

Question 14

scaffolding

Answer 14

degree of assistance provided to children in the zone of proximal development
Should decrease as children become more competent
Can occur at any age

Question 15

guided participation

Answer 15

teaching interaction between two people, often an adult and a child, as they participate in a culturally valued activity

Question 16

Language acquisition device

Answer 16

chomsky
innate feature of the brain that enables children to perceive and grasp quickly the grammatical rules in the language around them

Question 17

Language 12-18 MO: slow expansion

Answer 17

12-18MO: Slow expansion 
First 6MO: steady but slow pace 
12-18MO: 1-3 new words a week 
10 words by 15MO 
50 words by 18MO 
First 50 words tend to be part of toddler’s daily routines 
Speak in partial words 
12-18MO: one word at a time, single word can have many meanings

Question 18

holophrases

Answer 18

single word used to represent different forms of whole sentences

Question 19

overextensions

Answer 19

have a single word represent a variety of related objects

Question 20

underextensions

Answer 20

applying a general word to a specific object

Question 21

Language 18-24 MO: Naming explosion

Answer 21

5 to 6 new words a week
Naming explosion or vocabulary spurt
Fast mapping: learning and remembering a word for an object after just one time of being told what the object is called
At 2YO: average vocabulary of 200 words
Girls increases faster
‘gone’ and ‘no’ popular
Gone shows object permanence
No shows budding sense of self
Learn to name one or two colours, at least 6 body parts and emotional states like tired or mad
Telegraphic speech: two word phrases that strip away connecting words
Comprehension also advances
At 15MO, could show where an object is only after question fully asked but at 24MO could do before sentence finished

Question 22

24-36 MO: becoming adept at language

Answer 22

Use prepositions and categories
Decrease overextension and under extension
Telegraphic speech in three or four word statements
Short complete sentences
Most can speak clearly enough to make themselves understood about nearly anything they wish
Learned the rules of their language
overregulation

Question 23

overregulation

Answer 23

applying grammatical rules even to words that are exceptions to the rule

Question 24

emotion

Answer 24

Learn emotional self regulation
Learn to turn attention away from unpleasant stimulation
People around them soothe distress by cuddling or distraction

Question 25

emotional self regulation advances in four ways

Answer 25

Develop behaviours that help regulate emotions (turning to trusted adult or clinging to comfort toy)
Use language to promote emotional self regulation (18MO use language to convey emotion, talking about feelings)
External requirements by others extend their capacity for emotional self regulation (parents begin to enforce rules)
Promoted by the development of the sociomoral emotions (becoming capable or guilt, shame and embarrassment motivates toddlers to avoid these; because they may be admonished by others for expressing primary emotions too strongly, learn self regulation to get approval)

Question 26

birth of self

Answer 26

Although self awareness begins to develop in infancy, advances during toddlerhood
During second and third years, demonstrate self recognition
9-12MO would reach out and touch red dot placed on their nose but in the mirror as if it were someone else; 18MO would rub own nose
At same time as self recognition, begin to use personal pronouns and refer to themselves by own names
By second half of second year, have self reflection, capacity to think about one’s self as one would think about other persons and objects

Question 27

Bowlby’s theory

Answer 27

Harlow’s monkey experiment
Bowlby used these three findings to conclude that bond between mum and child based on protection and care
Primary attachment figure: person who is sought out when a child experiences some kind of distress or threat in the environment
Children use their primary attachment figure as a secure base from which to explore surrounding environment
If a threat appears in the environment, attachment behaviour is activated and children seek direct physical contact with their attachment figure
Attachment develops gradually over first 2 years old life, culminating in a foal-corrected partnership in which both persons use language to communicate about the child’s needs and the primary attachment figure’s responses

Question 28

Ainsworth strange experiment

Answer 28

12-24 MO
Secure attachment: mother secure base, separation causes crying, upon return greeted happily and hugged/held
Insecure-Avoidant attachment: little to no interaction with mum, no response to her departure and return, when picked up try to get down
Insecure resistant attachment: don’t explore while mum is present, great distress when leaving, ambivalence when returned- run to her but then push her away
Disorganised-disoriented attachment: added later by other researchers; dazed and detached when mum leaves, fearful when mum returns
Toddlers with secure attachments seemed delighted to see their mothers again after a separation and often sought physical contact with her, whereas toddlers with insecure attachments either responded little to her return (avoidant) or seemed both relieved and angry at her (resistant).

Question 29

critiques of attachment theory

Answer 29

child effect’: overstates mums influence and understates Childs influence
Fails to recognise that children are born with different temperament
Parent-child relationships are reciprocal not just from parent to kid
Some said same across cultures, others say possible cultural bias
Cultural differences in dependency are misclassified as insecure avoidant (independence) or insecure resistant (highly dependent on mum, overprotective)
Weaning may impact security of attachment- suddenly showing sharp increase in insecurity and stranger anxiety
Also, attachment researchers describe how toddlers with secure attachments grow up to be children who are self-reliant, socially assertive, and have high self-esteem, but these traits are not viewed as virtues in all cultures

Question 30

Autism

Answer 30

Autism: developmental disorder marked by a lack of interest in social relations, abnormal language development and repetitive behaviour
Main features of the diagnosis are: lack of interest in social relations, abnormal language development and repetitive behaviour
Low intelligence and may have intellectual disability
Usually diagnosis made between 18-30MO
At 8-10MO infants with autism show little or no evidence of normal social behaviours- no joint attention with parents, no pointing to objects to show others, or responding to own name
Diagnosis becomes more definite in toddlerhood with failure to develop language skills during a period usually for dramatic advances

Question 31

Siblings

Answer 31

Attachment to sibling is secondary attachment rather than primary
In strange situation adapted, older sibling provided the emotional comfort and security of an attachment figure only when mum was gone
Following the birth of a younger sibling, often toddlers’ attachment to mother changes from secure to insecure
They may regress in toilet training or self feeding
If mums pay special attention to the toddler before the new baby arrives and explain the feelings and needs of the baby after the birth, toddlers respond more positively
Once younger siblings are able to talk and play, older siblings show less resentment