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AP® Chemistry flashcards Global History & Geography Regents flashcards
1
Q

Dalton’s model
-3 main conclusions

A
  1. elements are made of atoms
  2. atoms of an element are the same
  3. compounds are formed by combining atoms
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2
Q

Rutherford Experiment:
-what was involved?
-3 main conclusions

A

Involved bombarding gold foil with alpha particles. when some went through foil but others bounced off nucleus, discovered that…

  1. atoms are mostly empty space
  2. nucleus is positively charged
  3. nucleus is DENSE
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3
Q

Bohr model
-3 main conclusions

A
  1. electrons surround nucleus in ORBITS. farther from nucleus=more energy
  2. energy is ABSORBED when electrons to move to outer orbits energy
  3. energy is RELEASED (light) when electrons move back to ground state
    3a. the light released is used to identify the element
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4
Q

Wave-mechanical model (modern)

A
  1. nucleus is small, dense, positively charged
  2. electron cloud surrounds nucleus
  3. orbitals are areas where an electron is LIKELY to be found
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5
Q

Charge and mass of proton neutron and electron

A

Proton:
1 amu
+1

Neutron:
1 amu
0

Electron:
0 amu
-1

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6
Q

An unstable nucleus means…

A
  1. ratio of protons to neutrons is not 1:1
  2. irregular ratio means not effective at holding nucleus together, becoming susceptible to radioactive decay: they will spontaneously decay and emit radiation
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7
Q

Nuclear fission and fusion

A

Fission: larger atom splits into 2 or more smaller, neutrons and energy are byproducts
*generates radioactive nuclear waste

Fusion: smaller atoms combine into one larger atom, energy is byproduct

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8
Q

Forms of spontaneous transmutation/natural decay

A

alpha and beta decay

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9
Q

What is ionizing and penetrating power? Which forms of decay have the highest and lowest of each?

A

Ionizing is the ability to damage molecules and DNA.
Highest: alpha
Lowest: Gamma

Penetrating is the ability to break through barriers.
Highest: gamma
Lowest: alpha

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10
Q

What are the results of gamma, alpha, and beta (minus and pos.) decay?

A

Alpha: mass decreases 4, atomic number decreases 2

Beta minus: atomic number increases 1
Beta pos: atomic number decreases 1

Gamma: everything stays the same, energy is emitted (photon)

***ON RT

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11
Q

Properties of ionic compounds

A
  1. HIGH melting and boiling points
  2. DO form crystals
  3. DO dissolve in water
  4. DO conduct electricity in a solution and as a liquid
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12
Q

Properties of covalent/molecular compounds

A
  1. LOWER melting and boiling points
  2. DO NOT form crystals
  3. INsoluble in water
  4. do NOT conduct electricity

OPPOSITE OF IONIC

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13
Q

How are metallic bonds formed?

A

valance electrons are mobile in a free moving “sea of electrons”

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14
Q

Combined gas law-relationship between…
-pressure and volume
-temperature and pressure
-temperature and volume

A

relationships between pressure, temp, and volume in sample of GAS

P and V: INVERSE

T and V: direct
T and P: direct

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15
Q

What is an ideal gas? When is a real gas most like an ideal gas?

A

Hypothetical gas model where molecules:
1. don’t repel or attract move in straight lines
2. move in straight lines with random motion
3. collisions result in transfer of energy but NO NET LOSS OF ENERGY
4. negligible volume

A real gas is most like an ideal gas when it’s at LOW temp and HIGH pressure

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16
Q

When will equal volumes of gas have an equal number of particles?

A

At the same temperature and pressure

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17
Q

potential and kinetic energy meaning? During a flat line what is happening to both? what about increasing line?

A

P: stored energy
flat line= (phase change) will increase
increasing line= stays the same

K: energy of motion
flat line=(phase change) will stay same
increasing line= increases

ONE CHANGES AT A TIME

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18
Q

Temp vs heat

A

Temperature: measures average kinetic energy, NOT form of energy
Heat: transfer of energy (usually thermal) from body of higher temp to lower

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19
Q

What is it called going from…
-gas to liquid
-liquid to gas

-liquid to solid
-solid to liquid

-gas to solid
-solid to gas

A

Gas to liquid: Condensation
Liquid to Gas: Vaporization

Liquid to Solid: Solidification (freezing)
Solid to liquid: Fusion (melting)

Gas to solid: deposition
Solid to gas: sublimation

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20
Q

When progressing across a period and down a group, what happens to:
-atomic radius
-metallic character
-electronegativity
-ionization energy

A

GROUP:
atomic radius INCREASES
metallic character INCREASES

electronegativity DECREASES
ionization energy DECREASES

PERIOD:
atomic radius DECREASES
metallic character DECREASES

electronegativity INCREASES
ionization energy INCREASES

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21
Q

elements in a different form but in the same phase will have ____properties and _____molecular/crystal structure.

A

Different properties and different structure

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22
Q

which types of solvent do ionic and covalent compounds dissolve in? (polar or nonpolar)

A

Ionic= polar

Covalent= nonpolar

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23
Q

How will adding a solute to a solvent affect freezing and boiling points?

A

HIGHER boiling point
LOWER freezing point

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24
Q

What’s the collision theory?

A

Theory that a reaction is most likely to occur when particles collide with proper ENERGY and ORIENTATION

25
Q

what is entropy and enthalpy? what do systems in nature tend to lead toward?

A

entropy: randomness
enthalpy: energy

systems in nature tend to lead toward higher entropy and lower enthalpy

26
Q

what are the reactants and products of neutralization reactions?

A

R:
Arrhenius base and acid
P:
water and a salt

27
Q

What does a lower vs higher pH mean for the concentration of H+? what does one pH unit =?

A

Lower pH= more acidic-higher concentration of acid(H+)
1 unit lower=10x greater concentration

Higher pH= less acidic-higher concentration of base(OH-)
1 unit higher=10x lower concentration

28
Q

how is electricity produced?

A

by moving electrons from one atom to another

29
Q

how to determine if redox reaction is SPONTANEOUS?

A

metals: oxidized is always HIGHER than reduced
nonmetals: reduced is always HIGHER than reduced

30
Q

voltaic cells

A
  1. chemical to electrical energy
  2. spontaneous MEANING cathode is lower than anode
  3. salt bridge (promotes ion exchange and maintains electrical neutrality)
31
Q

electrolytic cells

A
  1. electrical energy to chemical
  2. not spontaneous
  3. electroplating (plating) and electrolysis (splitting water molecules)
32
Q

how do you determine which atom has the greatest attraction for the electrons in a chemical bond?

A

the one with the highest electronegativity

33
Q

energy is ___ when bonds are broken and is _____ when bonds are formed.

A

broken: energy is absorbed
formed: energy is released

34
Q

according to LeChatelier’s principle, what changes would cause a shift in equilibrium?

A

temp,
volume,
concentration,
and pressure (only when there are gases on P or R side)

35
Q

what is the homologous series for unsaturated organic compounds?

A

CnH(2n+2)

36
Q

how many significant figures do you round your answer to when…
-multiplying
-dividing
-adding
-subtracting

A

for any problem, always round to the smallest number of sig figs!
Example:
1.0 + 3.24= round to 2 sig figs

37
Q

when naming polyatomic ions ending in -ite, what does this ending change to?

A

-ous

38
Q

which type of bonds are malleable and which are ductile?

A

metallic= ductile AND malleable
(ionic and covalent=not malleable, not ductile)

39
Q

when a sample is cooled, which property will increase?

A

density because the sample will contract

40
Q

distillation

A

separating MIXTURES based on their different boiling points

41
Q

how does providing a catalyst affect the reaction’s potential and activation energy?

A

lowers activation energy and the potential energy stays the same

42
Q

how do you identify a nonpolar/polar molecule? how do you identify nonpolar/polar bonds?

A

MOLECULE: symmetrical=nonpolar, asymmetrical=polar
BONDS: equal electronegativities=nonpolar, unequal electronegativities=polar

review electronegativity differences

43
Q

What electronegativity differences would make a bond polar?

A

0-0.4 is nonpolar covalent

BETWEEN 0.4-1.7 is polar covalent

1.7 and greater is ionic (polar)

44
Q

how do you identify which solution will have the HIGHEST boiling point?

A
  1. know that more ions=higher boiling point
  2. look at table S to see which has a higher BP
45
Q

saturated hydrocarbon:
-# of bonds
-formula

A

will have SINGLE bonds
formula is CnH2n+2(RT Q)

46
Q

What type of solutions are electrolytes?

A

Salts, bases and acids.
Common bases/acids are found on table K and L and salts are compounds that can conduct electricity (ionic and metallic compounds)

47
Q

Properties of metallic compounds

A

high BP and FP
malleable
can conduct electricity due to the sea of electrons that allows ions to move and conduct

48
Q

ionic and covalent binary compound…
-endings
-what to include when naming

A

binary IONIC: “-ide” (include oxidation states)

binary COVALENT: “ide” (include PREFIXES on table P to show number of atoms)
***Nitrogen MONoxide (never add mono to first atom)

49
Q

prefixes 1-4 (rest on table P)

A

mono
di
tri
tetra

50
Q

equation to convert C to K and K to C

A

(Table A)
K= C + 273
C= K - 273

51
Q

which elements will create a hydrogen bond with hydrogen?

A

Fluorine, Oxygen, and Nitrogen

Hold
the
FON

this will have: hydrogen, van der waal, and dipole-dipole IFA

52
Q

van der waal forces

A

exist in everything
IFA that will hold bonds together, hydrogen bonds and dipole-dipole are a type of this

53
Q

mixture vs compound

A

compound: 2 or more substances BONDED

mixture: 2 or more substances NOT BONDED
examples- AIR, mud, smog, sea water

54
Q

what two factors can show a CHEMICAL reaction at equilibrium?

A
  1. a different substance is formed
  2. the forward and reverse rate of reaction is the same
    NOT PHASE CHANGES
55
Q

identifying factors of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

A

SATURATED: alkANEs
-the maximum amount of H are there

UNSATURATED: alkENEs and alkYNEs and aromatic rings
-more H could be bonded to a C

56
Q

how can you identify the polarity of a molecule using chromotography?

A

lower polarity will move faster and therefore travel farther

higher will move slower and travel smaller distance

57
Q

properties of metals vs nonmetals vs metalloids

A

metals: good conductors, high melting point, usually solid at room temp., malleable and ductile

nonmetals: worse conductors, low melting point, usually liquid or gas at room temp., brittle

metalloids: right in the middle except ARE malleable and ductile

58
Q

what is ionization energy

A

the amount of energy needed to remove the most loosely held electron from a gaseous atom
going down a group: decreases
going across a period: increases

HIGHER IE means needs MORE energy to remove

chemistry regents (13 decks)

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