things I need to work on:

Question 1

ventral ramus

Answer 1

a branch of the spinal nerve that carries both sensory and motor fibers to the anterior and lateral body wall and limbs.

Question 2

white ramus communicans

Answer 2

a myelinated nerve branch that carries preganglionic sympathetic fibers from the spinal nerve (ventral ramus) to the sympathetic trunk.

Question 3

gray ramus communicans

Answer 3

an unmyelinated nerve branch that carries postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the sympathetic trunk back to the spinal nerve (ventral ramus).

Question 4

osmotic diuretics

Answer 4

e.g., mannitol; a molecule that acts as a competitive inhibitor at Na+/GLC-symporters in the PCT. as a result, sodium and glucose remain in the urine, increasing osmotic pressure, which reduces obligatory water reabsorption, lowering BV and BP.

Question 5

loop diuretics

Answer 5

inhibit the Na+/K+/2Cl-symporter in the cells of the ascending limb. sodium and potassium remain in the urine, as does H20, indirectly reducing facultative water reabsorption by impairing the creation of the medullary osmotic gradient.

Question 6

thiazide-type drugs

Answer 6

inhibit Na+/Cl-symporters in the DCT cells. sodium and chloride remain in the urine, as does water, which results in greater water excretion, lowering BV and BP.

Question 7

potassium sparing diuretics

Answer 7

inhibit the activity of aldosterone by inhibiting Na+ leak channels on the apical membrane of the principal cells in the collecting duct, which prevents the Na+/K+-ATPase from reabsorbing sodium and excreting potassium. sodium remains in the urine, and by osmosis, water does too, resulting in reduced facultative water reabsorption, which reduces BV and BP.

Question 8

frontal lobe

Answer 8

decision-making, motor control, and speech

Question 9

occipital lobe

Answer 9

visual processing

Question 9

parietal lobe

Answer 9

sensory processing and spacial awareness

Question 10

temporal lobe

Answer 10

auditory processing, memory, and language comprehension

Question 11

cerebellum

Answer 11

coordination and balance

Question 12

medulla oblongata

Answer 12

vital functions (heart rate, respiration)

Question 13

pons

Answer 13

communication between brain regions (especially between the cerebellum and cerebrum), breathing regulation

Question 14

define neurulation

Answer 14

the developmental process where the ectoderm forms the neural plate, which folds to create the neural tube, giving rise to the CNS.

Question 15

thalamus

Answer 15

relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex

Question 16

hypothalamus

Answer 16

regulates autonomic function, hormone release, and homeostasis (hunger, thirst, body temp)

Question 17

superior colliculus

Answer 17

located at the dorsal aspect of the midbrain, and part of the tectum (roof of the midbrain). it is involved in coordinating eye and head movements in response to visual stimuli.

Question 18

inferior colliculus

Answer 18

located below the superior colliculus, also part of the tectum (roof of the midbrain). it plays a key role in auditory processing, acting as a relay station for sound info coming from cochlea to the auditory cortex.

Question 19

semicircular canals

Answer 19

three fluid filled canals in the inner ear that function to detect rotational head movements by sensing the movement of fluid, which stimulates hair cells in the ampulla.

Question 20

otolith organs (utricle & saccule)

Answer 20

organs in the inner ear that detect liner acceleration and head position relative to gravity. they contain hair cells embedded in a gel-like substance with otoliths (CaCo3), which shift with movement, stimulating the hair cells to send signals to the brain.

utricle: detects horizontal head movements, such as tilting the head side to side.

saccule: detects vertical movements such as moving the head up and down.

Question 21

organ of corti

Answer 21

a structure located within the cochlear duct, resting on the basilar membrane. it contains hair cells convert sound vibrations into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain for auditory processing.

Question 22

lacrimal apparatus

Answer 22

a system of structures responsible for the production, distribution, and drainage of tears (lacrimal fluid). it includes:
-lacrimal gland
-lacrimal ducts
-lacrimal puncta
-lacrimal canaliculi
-lacrimal sac
-nasolacrimal duct

Question 23

blood-brain barrier

Answer 23

a selective barrier formed by tight junctions between endothelial cells of brain capillaries, supported by astrocytes. it regulates the passage of substances, protecting the brain from toxins while allowing essential nutrients to pass.

Question 24

circle of willis

Answer 24

a ring-like arterial structure at the brain’s base that ensures continuous blood supply. it connects the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, providing redundancy in case of vessel blockage.