Theory and Measurement Unit 2

Question 1

What are two major goals of science?

Answer 1

1. Discovery of regularities

2. Theory development

Question 2

Describe 3 processes in discovery of regularities

Answer 2

1. Description - First step is to describe the phenomenon. We must define events and entities.
2. Discovery of laws - A law is simply a statement that certain events are regularly associated with each other. Ex: the frustration-aggression law states that frustration causes aggression.
3. The search for causes - Knowledge of these laws allows us to predict the occurrence of behavior. Ex) if we know the causes of child abuse, then we believe we understand child abuse.

Question 3

What is a law? Give an example

Answer 3

Law is simply a statement that certain events are regularly associated with each other. Also - laws create a theory.

Anytime a regular association between two variables exist, you have a law. (frustration-aggression)

Question 4

Define theory

Answer 4

A theory is a set of statements that organize a large body of facts (laws) into a single explanatory system.

Broadly speaking - theory is a statement or set of statements about the relationships among variables. If the statements concern only a single between variables, we are speaking of a law.

Strict terms - theory is a statements or set of statements about relationships among variables that includes at least one concept that is not directly observed but that is necessary to explain these relationships.

Question 5

According to Popper, can a theory be proven true?

Answer 5

No, because there are many false theories that can predict any given outcome. However, we can gain more confidence in the theory the more tests it survives.

Question 6

What role do theories play in science? 3 crucial roles!

Answer 6

1. Organizing knowledge & explaining laws
2. predicting new laws
3. guiding research

Question 7

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 7

Hypothesis is a prediction from theory and said to be true for the purpose of testing its validity.

If A is true, then B should follow.

Hypotheses test predictions made from theories.

ex) If the oedipus complex is true (theory) than we should find desire for one’s opposite sex parent among children.

Question 8

Variable

Answer 8

Aspect of a testing condition that can change or take on different characteristics with different conditions.

Question 9

Dependent variable

Answer 9

who’s value depends on that of another (independent variable) - it is a response that a person/animal makes)

Question 10

Independent variable

Answer 10

The experimenter changes deliberately and it changes the dependent variable.

ex) IV is amount of drug given and DV is anxiety response

Question 11

What are the levels of independent variable?

Answer 11

Levels are different values of an independent variable, or the DEGREE to which an independent variable is present or absent.

Question 12

What is a confounding variable?

Answer 12

An error occurs when effects of 2 variables in experiment can’t be separated (confused)

• unrelated variable in an experiment design that correlates with both the dependent and independent variable.

Question 13

How are variables related to theoretical concepts?

Answer 13

Because the variables exist in the world but theory is an idea, you must make certain assumptions to relate the two.
These assumptions are guide ropes that tie a theory to the real world.

Variables (duration, frequency, rate) are tangible and theories (hunger, love) are not.

Question 14

Topography

Answer 14

Style and shape of a behavior

Question 15

Force

Answer 15

Intensity

Question 16

Locus

Answer 16

Where the behavior occurs

Question 17

Quantitative

Answer 17

Varies in amount

Question 18

Categorial

Answer 18

Varies in kind/type

Question 19

Continuous

Answer 19

Falls along a continuum and is not limited to a certain number of values.

ex) weight (any value between 2 numbers)

Question 20

Discrete

Answer 20

Fall into separate bins with no immediate values possible - limited amount.

Question 21

Real limits

Answer 21

The external defined by the number plus or minus half the distance to the next number

ex) 55-59 = 59.5 / 60-64 = 64.5

Question 22

Apparent limits

Answer 22

The point indicated by a number

ex) 60-64

Question 23

Measurement

Answer 23

Process of assigning numbers to events or objects according to rules that permit important properties of the objects

Question 24

What are the 4 measurement levels or scales?

Answer 24

1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio

Question 25

Nominal

Answer 25

(categorial) 2 or more categories but no order to it (classification function)
ex) female/male

Question 26

Ordinal

Answer 26

ranks objects/events in order of their magnitude

ex) 4 brocoli 3 corn 2 peas 1 asparagus

Question 27

Interval

Answer 27

Equal numerical intervals reflect equal magnitudes of the variables

ex) temperature

Question 28

Ratio

Answer 28

Meaningful zero (true zero point) and meaningful differences between numbers

ex) weight on a scale

Question 29

A measurement must have what 2 things?

Answer 29

1. Reliability

2. Validity

Question 30

Reliability

Answer 30

Consistency of a measurement that gives the same result on different occasions.

Question 31

What are the types of reliability measures

**important ones

Answer 31

1. Inter-rater reliability: the degree of agreement among raters (different people, same test)
2. Parallel forms reliability: different people, same time, different test
   * *3. Test-retest reliability: administering the same test twice over a period of time (at different times) to a group of people
   * *4. Internal consistency: concerns whether the various items on a test are measures of the same thing

Question 32

Define validity

Answer 32

Property of a measurement that tests what its supposed to test

Question 33

What are the different types of validity measurements?

Answer 33

1. Construct - a test actually measures the constructs it was designed to measure, and nothing else.
   ex) musical aptitude shouldn’t test reading skills
2. Face - test should appear to any person to be a test of what its supposed to test.
3. Content - test should sample the range of behavior represented by the theoretical concept being tested.
   ex) intelligence test should measure general knowledge, verbal, spatial ability, others. But if it only measures one of those options, it lacks content validity.
4. Criterion - valid test should relate closely to other measures of the same theoretical construct.
   ex) intelligence test should correlate with other intelligence tests

Question 34

2 types of measurement error

Answer 34

1. Systematic - associated with consistent bias

2. Random error - standing on a scale several times getting different results