Theories Topic 1 : Structural Theories

Question 1

Structural Approaches - features + who sees this as good/bad

Answer 1

Top down theories - they look at society first and then its impact on individuals (MACRO)

Emphasise the power of society over the individual - individual is controlled by society / society directs our actions

Our behaviour is shaped by the social structure:
1. We are kept in line through social control (police, courts, law)
2. We learn roles, and norms and values (socialisation)

Functionalists see this as positive - we can be functioning members of society
Marxists / Feminists disagree - bourgeoisie / men benefit and control proletariat / women

Question 2

Parsons - the integration of individuals

Answer 2

Society id a social system based on a value consensus

Society NEEDS social order and harmony

This can be achieved by:
1. Being socialised into society’s norms and values
2. Social control - positive sanctions for conformity + negative sanctions for deviance

Question 3

Parsons - the organic analogy

Answer 3

If all the systems of society are functioning in harmony it will remain healthy

But if one of these vital institutions starts to malfunction, then society becomes dysfunctional

This can be a good thing - EG when crime increase, it tells us something needs to be done to fix it…society can adapt and this reaffirms our collective conscience

Question 4

Synoptic links (AO2) - Parsons

Answer 4

1. Education = secondary socialisation
   = rewarded with positive and negative sanctions
2. Families = primary socialisation and the stabilisation of adult personalities

Question 5

Society as a social system - Parsons Functional Prerequisites

Answer 5

Society has functional prerequisites (basic needs that must be met for society to survive)

These include:
- production of food
- care of the young
- socialisation of the new generation into the culture of society

Institutions like the family, education etc. exist to satisfy these basic needs

Question 6

Functional prerequisites - Parsons GAIL model

Answer 6

Parsons says that to survive in a healthy state, society has to resolve 2 sets of problems:
1. Instrumental problems - setting and achieving goals
2. Expressive problems - maintaining social solidarity + managing tensions between individuals

Society has to have 4 functional prerequisites which have 4 related subsystems

This is known as the Gail model

Question 7

Parsons Functional Prerequisites:

Prerequisite

Description

Sub-system

Answer 7

Goal attainment - Society needs to set goals to attain them, as well as the ability to make decisions (political parties we vote for do this for us - political subsystem)

Adaptation - The environment to meet people’s needs and achieve valued social goals i.e. food and shelter (factories, shops for economic production - economic subsystem)

Integration - Different parts of the system must integrate to pursue shared goals. Socialisation and social control are key to this (Religion, education and media subsystems)

Latency - Society needs to be maintained over time. Social tensions and interpersonal conflicts need to be prevented so individuals continue their roles (family provides socialisation and tension management - family subsystem)

Question 8

Social change and social evolution

Answer 8

Social change occurs when new functions emerge / society needs to adapt - one change will result in change everywhere but society will remain stable

Parsons explains this through structural differentiation - as society evolves with new needs, institutions become more specialised and begin to perform new functions

Question 9

Social change and social evolution - AO2

Answer 9

The move from extended family to nuclear family

Industrial society realised that the family can’t perform specific functions anymore - it lost its functions to new specialised institutions

Family used to educate their children - now the school does
Family used to care for the sick - now the NHS does

Question 10

Durkheim

Answer 10

‘Social facts’ shapes people’s behaviour to serve societies needs. Social facts are things like institutions and norms and values, which exist external to the individual and constrain them (we are puppets)

Social facts can be measured objectively to show patterns of behaviour - study of suicide (synaptic link to crime) cause and effect

Question 11

Durkheim - Synoptic Link AO2

+ AO3

Answer 11

The more integrated a person was in society, the less likely they were to commit suicide

He measured this using suicide statistics in European countries and compared the suicide rate with how integrated they were based on religion and family status (married, single etc.)

AO3 : Gibbs and Martin argue that Durkheim’s methods weren’t a vigorous enough use of scientific methods - he didn’t operationalise (making something measurable) his idea of integration, making it impossible to measure

Question 12

Durkheim and social change

Answer 12

Simple society, there was a high collective conscience. Institutions such as religion reinforced this

Social changes have occurred ( eg secularisation). These changes have weakened bonds between individuals and weakens social solidarity - THIS LEADS TO a risk of anomie (Normlessness where people don’t know the correct morals anymore)

Durkheim sees social change as worrying

Question 13

Durkheim

The establishment and maintenance of social order

+ AO2 synoptic link

Answer 13

He placed great importance on the role of social institutions in socialising people into a value consensus / collective conscience - this builds social solidarity and regulates behaviour

AO2 synoptic link to education:
Durkheim’s view on the function of education:
The education system instils social solidarity, teaches social rules + how to abide by them, and teaches specialist skills

Question 14

Summary of functionalism

Answer 14

Parsons’ ideas are useful for understanding how:
1. Individuals are integrated into society (socialisation and social control)
2. Society works as a system (organic analogy + GAIL model)

Durkheim’s ideas are useful for understanding how:
1. Social facts are important as well as establishing patterns in order to understand society
2. How institution are crucial to maintaining social order

Question 15

AO3 of functionalism : Merton’s Internal Critique of Functionalism

Answer 15

Merton criticises Parsons’ universal functionalism - the idea that everything in society performs a positive function

In complex modern societies many institutions are actually dysfunctional
= EG various religions may divide rather than unite society (Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland)

His overall point is that we cannot just assume that society is always a well-integrated system

These dysfunctions can affect all the other parts of the system
= EG poor socialisation from the family can lead to crime and deviance

Question 16

AO3 of functionalism : Merton’s manifest and latent functions

Answer 16

Manifest functions - the positive functions intended by the system (intended to produce beneficial outcomes)

Latent functions - are neither intended nor recognised

EG
A prison’s manifest function is to punish someone for their crime
The latent function is to reinforce norms of appropriate behaviour

Question 17

AO3 of functionalism : Merton: Institutions are NOT indispensable

Answer 17

Parsons - some institutions are indispensable to society (society cannot operate without them)

Merton questions this = a functional prerequisite can be met by a range of alternative institutions

To replace the idea of indispensability, Merton suggests the concept of functional alternatives/equivalents

EG Parsons assumes that primary socialisation is best performing by the nuclear family - but perhaps lone-parent families or other types do it just as well or better

Question 18

Precise evaluation

Parsons talks about how important it is to integrate individuals into a value consensus

Answer 18

Social action theorists - Parsons is too deterministic - he sees individuals as passive products of the system that are socialised into conformity and controlling their behaviour

He doesn’t allow for individual choice and ignores the interpretations/meanings individuals give to situations

Question 19

Precise evaluation

Parsons GAIL model

Answer 19

Mx / Fem - Overemphasis of the positive functions, but some functions may be dysfunctional

EG Parsons’ view on gender roles ignores harmful consequences they may have on women’s lives / careers

Question 20

Precise evaluation

Parsons organic analogy

Answer 20

These institutions are not indispensable (essential) to society

Merton - functional alternatives can replace the idea of indispensability
= EG where functionalists think that the nuclear family is best suited to modern society, lone parent families can still perform these functions too

Question 21

Precise evaluation

Durkheim and social order

Answer 21

Is there really a value consensus? (PM)

In a dog eat dog society (AO2 link to Mx Gordon) there is actually more conflict than consensus and harmony

Question 22

Key features of traditional Marxism - 8

Answer 22

1. Base and superstructure
2. Private ownership and social classes
3. Exploitation
4. Capitalists and workers
5. Class conflict
6. The ruling class
7. Dominant ideology
8. Revolution and communism

Question 23

Background to traditional Marxism

Answer 23

Marx - at the start of humanity, people lived in primitive communism
= food and shelter were communally owned

This changed due to the emergence of private property - especially with private ownership of the means of production (materials / technology used in the production of goods and services)

Question 24

Traditional Marxism - Base and Superstructure

Answer 24

Marx believed the economy was the driving force in society - it determined the nature of institutions and people’s values

Structure of society split into 2 parts:
1. The Economic Base:
- Means of production - land, factories, raw materials
- Relations of production - relationships people enter to produce goods and services

2. The Superstructure - society’s institutions (these are determined by the economic base)

The R/C control the economic infrastructure which means they have power over the superstructure

Question 25

Traditional Marxism - Private Ownership and the Emergence of the Ruling and Subject Class

Answer 25

Primitive communism - everybody had the same relations + worked together
= this ended when private ownership emerged

Now the relations of production consisted of 2 main classes - the owners and the non-owners of the means of production:
- Ruling class (bourgeoisie)
- Working class (proletariat)

High profits go to the owners
Low cost (low salary to workers)
Extra production (surplus value) = W/C being exploited

Examples of social classes that have emerged over time due to the move of private ownership:
1. Slave owners and slaves in Ancient Rome
2. Landowners and serfs on medieval feudal society
3. Capitalists and workers right now

Question 26

Traditional Marxism - Exploitation and Class Conflict

Answer 26

Marx - workers produce more than needed for employers to pay their wages - this ‘extra’ is called surplus value - it provides profit for the employer. (workers do not get full value for their work - they’re being exploited )

In a capitalist society:
- A small wealthy class of owners of the means of production
- A larger, poorer class of non-owners
- The proletariat owned no means of production so had to sell their labour in exchange for a wage
- The bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat by keeping wages as low as possible

Conflict created by differing interests of the classes:
- WC wanted higher wages for a better lifestyle
- RC wanted higher profits to expand their wealth
- WC feel alienated

Question 27

Traditional Marxism - The Owning Class is ALSO a Ruling Class

Answer 27

Since they owned the means of production, the Owning Class had the power to dictate society + the economy (EG decided where factories could be located. They could control the workforce through hiring / firing)

Governments couldn’t ignore their power - it could lead to rising unemployment / other social problems if the bourgeoisie didn’t invest money (AO2 : HSBC spent years committing the crime of money laundering for terrorists but given no serious conviction. Because HSBC invest in the government)

Marx - the state (through institutions like law, police and CJS), is only concerned with protecting the interests of the R/C

Therefore, the infrastructure (economy) dictates the rest of society

Question 28

Traditional Marxism - Dominant / Ruling Class Ideology

Answer 28

Marx - dominant ideas in society were those of the Owning Class
= institutions in the superstructure reflected these dominant ideas and the bourgeoisie’s interests
= this false set of beliefs is the Dominant / RC ideology
= it reinforces and legitimises the capitalist social order

Question 29

Traditional Marxism - Dominant / Ruling Class Ideology

Specific Institutions and how they perpetuate RC Ideology + its impact

Answer 29

Law - protected the interests of the Owning Class more than it did of the workers

Religion - acted as ‘the opium of the people-
= it ‘drugs’ workers to accept low position as fair. ‘Drugs’ them into false promises

Media - owned by the RC - only their interests are shared

Education system - produces the obedient workers that capitalism requires

• Workers are brainwashed into accepting their positions
• They fail to recognise they were being exploited and thus didn’t rebel against the bourgeoisie
• Marx called this a false class consciousness

Question 30

Traditional Marxism -AO2 for False Consciousness (synoptic links to other institutions)

Answer 30

Education system :
Socialises children into capitalist values + makes them obedient workers (correspondence principle - Bowles and Gintis)
WC children in an educational setting have a fatalistic attitude - Sugarman

Family :
The family socialises children into capitalist values (conditioning device)

Media :
The media vilifies WC protestors (miners strike under thatcher’s government)

Religion :
Religion has created a belief that hierarchy and subordination is inevitable (EG the Hindu Caste system in India)

Question 31

Traditional Marxism - Revolution and Communism

Answer 31

Marx - one day workers will become aware of their exploitation

Wealth + power would become even more concentrated and workers would become even poorer

This contrast between wealth and poverty - lead the WC to develop a class consciousness (an awareness of their exploitation) and they would protest to overthrow the bourgeoisie via a revolution

The means of production would belong to the state and run in the interests of everyone
Communist society created - no class conflict and no classes at all

Question 32

AO3 - Strengths of Traditional Marxism

Answer 32

• Recognises the importance of the economy and how economic changes can influence a wide range of other institutions (SYNOPTIC LINK - 2008 Global Recession led to Austerity Policies. Lack of funding in healthcare institution put pressure on women and the family. However, whilst they cut spending in state schools, they didn’t stop funding private schools - therefore, society’s institutions serve RC interests, not everyone’s like a functionalist would say)
• It’s focus on private ownership of the means of production provides an explanation for the extreme inequalities in wealth and power that persists in society
• Recognises the importance of society’s social structure, and links this to the ideas and behaviour of individuals and groups

Question 33

AO3 - Weaknesses of Traditional Marxism

Answer 33

• Social Action Theorists: Marxism is deterministic - sees individuals as passive products of the system, which socialises them into conformity. Doesn’t consider individual choice
• Neo-Marxists: accuse Marx for being economically deterministic: ignores the possibility that institutions may influence behaviour themselves and cause social change independent of the economy
• Postmodernists: Marxism is a meta narrative that tries to explain everything from a single perspective. Meta narratives can no longer explain temporary societies, where values are diverse and social structures are fragmented
• Functionalists: Marxism over-emphasises the extent of conflict in society. Society is primarily stable + there must be shared values for society to function

Question 34

Neo-Mx

How is Gramsci similar to Marx

Answer 34

Main development of Marxist theory is his concept of hegemony
= the means by which the RC maintains its dominance over the subject class
= it consists of political / moral beliefs values which justify RC power

Question 35

Neo-Mx

How is Gramsci different to Marx

Answer 35

He thought Marx was economically deterministic - gave too much importance to the economy in shaping behaviour

Gramsci - people’s ideas have relative autonomy from the economic base

Relative autonomy = superstructure of society has some independence from the economic base, rather than being directly determined by it

Hegemony focuses more on the role of ideas rather than the economy determining people’s behaviour

People’s ideas are influenced by the RC through institutions - not through force like Marx says, but through the spreading of ideology

People’s ideas underpin the actions they CHOOSE to make - choices and actions bring change, not just economic conditions like poverty

Question 36

Neo-Mx

Gramsci - Dual Consciousness

Answer 36

RC hegemony never entirely blinds the proletariat to their reality of the situation (AO2: Paul Willis - boys rebelled as a result of being aware of the ruling class ideology)

On one side, they see the world in terms of RC hegemony
On the other side, they have glimpses of the true picture of society

Thus, members of the subject class have a dual consciousness = seeing 2 views of the world side by side

Question 37

Neo-Mx

Gramsci - the downfall of capitalism

Answer 37

Marx sees economic crises leading to revolution + downfall of capitalism (AO2: 2023 strikes)

Gramsci argues this can happen from a rejection of RC hegemony and its replacement by a set of beliefs that provide a true picture of society

Subject class will present a set of beliefs in opposition to RC hegemony = counter-hegemony

Question 38

Strengths of Gramsci

Answer 38

Tried to overcome some weaknesses of Marxism such as its economic determinism

Hegemony recognises the importance of people’s actions and ideas

Question 39

Weaknesses of Gramsci

Answer 39

Traditional Marxist - Gramsci does not put enough emphasis on the influence of the economy to social change

He overemphasise the role of ideas, and underemphasises the role of material factors like poverty

Marx DID recognise the importance of ideas when he discussed class consciousness

Question 40

Neo-Mx

Althusser - structure of society

Answer 40

Argued that the structure of capitalist society consists of not just the economic base and superstructure, but of 3 levels:

1. Economic level - consisting of the economy and the production of material goods
2. Political level - repressive state apparatus controls population through force (army, police, courts, prisons)
3. Ideological level - I.S.A. consists of institutions which spread the RC ideology and justify the power of the RC (media, education - AO2: B+G correspondence principle - religion, families)

Question 41

Neo-Mx

How does Althusser agree with Gramsci

Answer 41

(To an extent)

All 3 levels ultimately preserve / justify the power of the dominant class, the political and ideological levels can affect society dependent of the economy

Each level has relative autonomy + some independence from the economic base - distinguishing it from traditional Marxism

Question 42

How is Althusser more in line with traditional Marxism?

Answer 42

He still retains the structuralist emphasis of traditional Marxism on the way social structures + the economy are still the key influences on people’s behaviour

Disagrees with Gramsci’s views that people have more choice than Marx suggested, and that political ideas / action are more important than economic factors in bringing about revolutionary change (AO3: deterministic)

Question 43

Neo-Mx

Althusser - synoptic links AO2

Answer 43

Education system is part of the ISA that reinforces ideas if meritocracy upon its students. This helps to control behaviour by offering rewards for being a docile member of society

Crime - the RSA is used to control the masses by force, with the threat of military, legal or police involvement if workers are not compliant

Families - ideological function of the family is to teach children that hierarchy is inevitable (through parental power) and to learn capitalist values preparing them for work (links to ideological conditioning - Mx Fem)

Question 44

Neo-Mx

When will there be a revolution according to Althusser?

Answer 44

Socialism wont come through a change in consciousness (like gramsci states) but through a crisis in capitalism leafing to ‘over-determinism’ (contradictions in the 3 levels) that leads to the collapse of the system overall

Only when the 3 levels are in chaos will change occur

Question 45

Strength of Althusser

Answer 45

Emphasises the role of RSA in maintaining a FCC

Question 46

Weaknesses of Althusser

Answer 46

Ignores the fact that it is the active struggles of the WC that can change society

His work is purely theoretical and lack evidence

Use Gramsci’s POV to criticise Althusser - Gramsci states we have a dual consciousness