theories of religion

Question 1

what are the three main ways to define religion?

Answer 1

substantive definitions
functional definitions
constructionist definitions

Question 2

what are substantive definitions?

Answer 2

focus on the content or substance of religious belief such as belief on God or the supernatural

widespread view of religion as a belief in God

(weber)

Question 3

criticisms of substantive definitions?

Answer 3

leaves no room for beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to religions but don’t involve belief in God

Western bias because exclude religions such as Buddhism which don’t have a God

Question 4

what are functional definitions?

Answer 4

focus on social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society

Durkheim, contribution it makes to social integration

Question 5

evaluation of functional definitions?

Answer 5

advantages: inclusive, allowing a wide range of beliefs and practices that perform functions such as integration

no bias against non-western religions e.g Buddhism

disadvantages: just because an institution helps integrate individuals into groups doesn’t make it a religion e.g. collective chanting at football matches provides a sense of integration but not a religion

Question 6

what are constructionist definitions?

Answer 6

interpretivists approach focus on how members of society themselves define religion, not possible to produce a universal definition, since different individuals and groups mean different things by religion

don’t assume religions always involves a belief in God or the supernatural, or that it performs similar functions for everyone in all societies

Question 7

evaluation of constructionist definitions

Answer 7

advantages: allows them to get close to the meanings people themselves give to religion
disadvantages: impossible to generalise about the nature of religion since people have widely differing views about what counts as religion

Question 8

evaluation of constructionist definitions

Answer 8

advantages: allows them to get close to the meanings people themselves give to religion
disadvantages: impossible to generalise about the nature of religion since people have widely differing views about what counts as religion

Question 9

what does Durkheim say about religion?

Answer 9

the sacred and the profane
totemism
the collective conscience
cognitive functions of religion

Question 10

sacred and the profane

Answer 10

key feature of religion was a fundamental distinction between the sacred and the profane

sacred: things set apart and forbidden, that inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder
profane: no special significance, ordinary and mundane

sacred things evoke such powerful feelings as they are symbols representing something of great power, sacred symbols vary between religions but all unite believers into a single moral community

Question 11

Durkheim research of religion

Answer 11

studied the Arunta, an aboriginal Australian tribe, to understand the function of their belief system

Question 12

totemism

Answer 12

the totem is the clan’s emblem (animal/plant) the shared totemic rituals reinforce group’s solidarity and sense of belonging

Durkheim says in fact they are worshipping society, although not aware, inspires feelings of awe as it represent power of the group

Question 13

collective conscious

Answer 13

sacred symbols represents collective conscience, without these society would disintegrate

regular shared rituals reinforce collective conscience

rituals remind individual of the power of society, without which they themselves are nothing

religion performs important function for the individual, making us feel part of something greater than ourselves, strengthens us to face life’s problems

Question 14

cognitive functions of religion

Answer 14

religion is the source of our cognitive capabilities, in order to think we need categories such as time and space

religion provides concepts and categories needed for understanding the world and communicating with others, provides basic categories

religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science

Question 15

criticisms of Durkheim

Answer 15

evidence on totemism is unsound, no sharp division between sacred and the profane and that different clans share the same totems

Postmodernists say Durkheim’s ideas can’t be applied to contemporary society, increasing diversity has fragmented collective conscience so no longer a single shared value system for religion to reinforce

Question 16

what does Malinowski say about religion?

Answer 16

psychological functions for individuals, helping them cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity, two situation where it performs this role:

• where outcome is important but uncontrollable and uncertain: study of the Troiband Islanders, he contrasts lagoon and ocean fishing, lagoon fishing is safe but ocean is dangerous and uncertain so accompanied by ‘canoe magic’, gives people sense of control, eases tension, confidence to undertake hazardous tasks
• at times of life crises: birth, marriages, death are potentially disruptive changes, death is main tease for existence of religious beliefs

Question 17

Parsons two functions of religion?

Answer 17

creates and legitimates society’s basic norms and values by sacralising them (making them sacred), promotes value consensus and social stability

provides a source of meaning, answering ‘ultimate’ questions about life e.g. why good people suffer, these may undermine our commitment to society’s values, by answering such questions, religion helps people to adjust to adverse events and maintains stability

Question 18

evaluation of functionalist perspective of religion

Answer 18

emphasises social nature of religion and the positive functions it performs, neglects negative aspects such as religion as a source of oppression of the poor or women

ignores religion as a source of division and conflict especially in complex modern societies where there is more than one religion e.g. Northern Ireland, hard to see how religion unites people in religion pluralism

Question 19

what is civil religion?

Answer 19

Bellah says religion unifies society, America is a multi-faith society united by a civil religion, attaches sacred qualities to society itself

integrates society in a way individual religions can’t, american civil religion involves loyalty to the nation-state and belief in God, expressed in various rituals, symbols and beliefs e.g. pledge of allegiance to the flag

binds Americans from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds

Question 20

Marxists theories of religion

Answer 20

religion as ideology

religion and alienation

Question 21

religion as an ideology

Answer 21

ruling class controls economic production also controls production and distribution of ideas through institutions such as religion

religion is an ideological weapon used b ruling class to legitimate suffering of the poor as inevitable and god-given, misleads the poor into believing they will be rewarded in the afterlife creating false consciousness preventing revolution

‘spiritual gin’ that confuses working class and keeps them in their place

Question 22

religion and alienation

Answer 22

Marx sees religion as a product of alienation, under capitalism workers are alienated as they don’t own what they produce. have no control over production process

in these dehumanising conditions, religion is a form of consolation and acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation, promises of the afterlife distracts attention from capitalism which is the true source of suffering

Question 23

criticisms of Marxist theories of religion

Answer 23

Marx ignores positive functions of religion, such as psychological adjustment to misfortune

some Marxists reject concept of alienation as unscientific and based on a romantic idea that human beings have a true self, inadequate basis for a theory of religion

Question 24

evidence of patriarchy within religion

Answer 24

religious organisations mainly male-dominated despite the fact that women participate more than men, e.g. judaism and catholicism forbid women to become priests

places of worship segregate the sexes and marginalise women e.g. seating them behind screens while men occupy more central and sacred spaces, taboos regard menstruation, pregnancy and childbirth as polluting may prevent participation

sacred texts largely feature doings of male gods, prophets etc, and written and interpreted by men

Question 25

criticisms of evidence of patriarchy

Answer 25

Nawal El Saadawi religion used to oppress women but not the direct cause, the result of patriarchal society coming into existence which influenced and re-shaped religion e.g. men reinterpreted religious beliefs in ways that favoured patriarchy

Question 26

religious forms of feminism

Answer 26

Woodhead criticises feminist explanations that equate religion with patriarchy as it is not true of all religion, there are religious forms of feminism

hijab worn by muslin women, western feminists see it as a symbol of oppression, muslims see it as a means of liberation

women may use religion to gain status and respect for their roles within private sphere e.g. strongly held belief among pentecostal Christians that men must respect women

position of women in liberal protestant organisations is often more equal e.g. Church of England admitted women to priesthood a fifth of priests are now female

Question 27

feminist theories of religion

Answer 27

evidence of patriarchy

religious forms of feminism