Theories of Development

Question 1

What are the three broad domains of development? - remember: they are highly interdependent.

Answer 1

Physical, Cognitive and Psychosocial.

Physical - growth of body and organs, functioning of physiological systems (brain, physical signs of ageing, changes in motor abilities)

Cognitive - changes and continuities in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving and other mental processes.

Psychosocial - changes and continuities in personal and interpersonal aspects - motives, emotion, personality traits, interpersonal skills, relationships and roles played in the family and in society.

Question 2

William James stated that development is set in stone from 30 - this is a construct that developmental psychologists contest, what are some fundamental issues of development that psychologist research?

Answer 2

1. Nature - Nurture
2. Continuity - Discontinuity
3. Universality - Context Specificity
4. Activity - Passivity

Question 3

Within the issue of Nature and Nurture, what are some of the concepts that explain an individuals development?

Answer 3

Heredity and/or Environment

Maturation and/or Learning

Genes and/or Experience

Innate predispositions and/or Cultural influences

Question 4

What is the argument in continuity and discontinuity of development- hint: stage theories are related to this?

Answer 4

Does development happen in an abrupt or more gradual way? is this a change in kind (qualitative) or a change in degree (quantitative) and can these changes be mapped in a linear or steep abrupt way? - this is the basis of stage theories (abrupt)

Question 5

What are the concepts underlying the issue of activity and passivity in developmental change?

Answer 5

Are we active in creating and influencing our own environments, and in the process produce our own development? or are we passively shaped by forces largely beyond our control?

Question 6

What are the concepts underlying the issue of universality and context specificity?

Answer 6

To what extent are developmental changes common to all humans? do they differ across cultures, subcultures, task contexts or individuals? - This is a crucial bias in developmental theories that needs to be addressed.

Question 7

When conceptualising the chronological ages of developmental periods, there is a lot of contention for the heterogeneity that exists in lumping certain ages with another. For developmental psychologists, what ages are associated with each developmental period?

Answer 7

Prenatal period - pre-birth to birth
Infancy - Birth to 2
Early Childhood - 2 - 5/6
Middle Childhood - 5/6 - 12
Adolescence - 12 - 18 or puberty to 18
[Emerging Adulthood - 19 - 25]
Early Adulthood - 20 - 40
Middle Adulthood - 40 - 65
Late Adulthood - 65 - 100
[within late adulthood there are more stages within this developmental period that exist]

Question 8

When thinking about prominent developmental theories, what is something we need to be critical of when understanding their lens?

Answer 8

We must consider the fundamental issues that exist within developmental research. This debate of nature and nurture, discontinuity and continuity, activity and passivity; and, universality and context specificity.

Question 9

What are four common conceptualisations of theoretical perspectives in development?

Answer 9

Psychodynamic approach (Freud, Erikson)

Learning theories (Skinner, Bandura, Watson, Pavlov)

Cognitive-Developmental theories (Piaget, Vygotsky)

Contextual Theories (Bronfenbrenner)

Question 10

What are the main points of Freudian theory?

Answer 10

Our earliest experiences generate unconscious drives that shape emotional and motivational conflict thus determining our personality.

The structure of our personality is
Id - pleasure principle
Ego - reality principle
Superego - Conscience (moral right or wrong)

Humans move through psychosexual stages of development.
Oral
Anal
Phalic
Latency
Genital

Question 11

What are the limitations of Freud theory?

Answer 11

He was driven by the unconscious as the main source of development. He stated that development was only of a sexual nature and his stage theory was very limited in encapsulating the entire life span.

Question 12

What are the main points of Eriksons psychosocial theory? and how did he develop on Freud?

Answer 12

Erikson saw that development existed as a part of the social world rather than the unconscious of an individual. Therefore, lifting Freudian ideas from development being exclusively sexual to being influenced by social dimensions.

He positioned development as a series of conflicts that had to be resolved residing both external and internal to the individual. These would be the fundamental tenets of behaviour.

Question 13

Psychosocial Stage: Tust versus mistrust; age and virtue obtained.

Answer 13

Birth to 1 year.
Focus on oral-sensory activity; development of trusting relationships with caregivers and of self-trust.
Virtue: Hope

Question 14

Psychosocial stage: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt; age and virtue obtained.

Answer 14

1 - 3 years
Focus on muscular-anal activity; development of control over bodily functions and activities
Virtue: Will

Question 15

Psychosocial Stage: Initiative vs. Guilt; age and virtue obtained.

Answer 15

3 - 6 years
Focus on locomotor-genital activity; testing limits of self-assertion and purposefulness
Virtue: purpose

Question 16

Psychosocial Stage: Industry versus inferiority; age and virtue obtained.

Answer 16

6 - 12 years (latency period)
Focus on mastery, competence, and productivity.
virtue: Competence

Question 17

Psychosocial Stage: Identity vs. Role confusion; age and virtue obtained.

Answer 17

12 - 19 years (adolescence)
Focus on formation of identity and coherent self-concept.
Virtue: Fidelity

Question 18

Psychosocial stage: Intimacy vs. Isolation; age and virtue obtained.

Answer 18

19 - 25 years (early adulthood)
Focus on achievement of an intimate relationship and career direction.
Virtue: Love

Question 19

Psychosocial Stage: Generativity vs. Stagnation; age and virtue obtained.

Answer 19

25 - 50 (adulthood)
Focus on fulfilment through creative, productive activity that contributes to future generations.
Virtue: Care

Question 20

Psychosocial Stage: Ego integrity vs. Despair; age and virtue obtained.

Answer 20

50 years and older
Focus on belief in integrity of life, including success and failures.
Virtue: Wisdom.

Question 21

What was Bandura’s theory of development and the experiment that realised this theory?

Answer 21

He stated that development is a product of observing and modelling behaviour exhibited by an adult. The Bobo doll experiment simulated this theory, where children viewed an adult being either praised or punished for aggressive behaviour towards a doll. Therefore, we can learn through vicarious punishment and reinforcement.

Question 22

What is the developmental process of Erikson’s stage theory?

Answer 22

Development of the ego, or sense of identity through a series of stages, each building on the preceding stages and focused on successfully resolving a new psychosocial crisis between two opposing ego qualities. No stage is fully resolved, and a more favourable resolution at earlier stages facilitates the achievement of later stages.