Theories And Principles Of Learning And Behavior Flashcards
Classical Conditioning
Generally, learning is based on pairing
Operant Conditioning
Generally, learning is based on rewards and punishment
Social Learning Theory
Generally, learning is based on observation and imitation
Unconditioned Reflex
Involves an unconditioned stimulus (US) that evokes an unconditioned response (UR).
Inborn, require no learning, and are generally the same for all members of a species.
Conditioned Reflex
Involves a conditioned stimulus (US) and a conditioned response (CR).
Generally varies significantly among members of a species.
Unconditioned Stimulus vs. Conditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned = Is the response universal? Conditioned = Does the response vary?
Delay Conditioning (standard pairing)
Conditioned stimulus (CS) precedes the unconditioned stimulus (US) by a short interval and overlaps presentation of the US.
Ex: Bell rings (CS) before meat power (US). The US is dependent/contingent on presentation of CS.
Trace Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) precedes the unconditioned stimulus (US) by a period and stops right before the US.
Ex: Can opener sound prior to being fed. Over time, dog will salivate (CR) when it hears the can opener (CS). The US is dependent/contingent on presentation of CS.
Temporal Conditioning
Occurs when an unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented repeatedly at a constant time interval, and eventually, time itself acts as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
Ex: Animals feed at noon each day. Animals will eventually anticipate the feeding. Time is the CS, and animal Bx is the CR.
Simultaneous Conditioning
The neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus (US) overlap.
Ex: A bell (NS) is sounded at exactly the same time the meat powder (US) is presented. No actual learning takes place.
Backward Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US) precedes neutral stimulus (NS).
Ex: meat powder (US) is presented and then bell (NS) follows. No actual learning takes place.
Conditioning
Only occurs when the CS is presented before the US.
NOT simultaneously or preceding
Stimulus Generalization
When a subject generalizes (automatically) from a conditioned stimulus (CS) to other similar neutral stimuli.
Ex: Little Albert classically conditioned to be afraid of white rat (neutral) when paired with a loud noise (US). He generalized this conditioned response to other small white furry objects.
Higher Order Conditioning
Deliberate process of ordered conditioning (second and third level).
It is impossible to condition beyond the third level.
Classical Extinction
Process of unlearning a conditioned response (CS) by presenting conditioned stimulus (CS) without unconditioned stimulus (US)
Ex: If Little Albert was repeatedly shown the white rabbit (CS) without the loud noise (US) - his fear response (CR) would eventually stop.
Spontaneous Recovery
During extinction trials, the conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus (CS) may reappear
Pesudoconditioning
Occurs accidentally. A neutral stimulus that was not deliberately paired with either the unconditioned stimulus (US) or conditioned stimulus (CS) comes to elicit the conditioned response (CR).
Habituation
Process of becoming accustomed to and less responsive to an unconditioned stimulus (US) after repeated exposure.
Ex: When someone gets used to a noise of a passing train after moving into a new apartment.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behaviors are initially emitted in random, trial and error fashion. Those random behaviors that are followed by pleasurable consequences (rewards) become stronger and more frequent, whereas those behaviors that follow unpleasant consequences (punishers) become weaker and less frequent.
Reinforcement
Always increases the target behavior. It brings the subject into a more desirable state.
Punishment
Always decreases the target behavior. It brings the subject into a less desirable state.
Positive vs Negative (reinforcement or punishment)
Positive = Means something is "added" following emission of the target behavior Negative = Means something is "subtracted" following emission of target behavior
Positive Reinforcement
Reward. After target Bx is performed, something of value is given to the person.
Ex: Providing praise to Everett after he makes his bed.
Negative Reinformenet
Relief. After the target Bx is performed, something annoying or aversive is removed.
Ex: In the car, an annoying bell rings (nagging). Once Everett fastens his seat belt, the ringing stops.
Positive Punishment
Pain. After the target Bx is performed, something aversion is added.
Ex: Everett is scolded after he bites mom. (other examples include spanking or humiliation)
Negative Punishment
Loss. After the target Bx is performed, something valuable is removed.
Ex: If Everett swears, he loses TV time.
Overview 3 questions for Positive, Negative, Reinforcement, Punishment
Ask yourself…
1) What is the target behavior? (also look at perspective)
2) What occurs AFTER the target Bx? Added (positive) or taken away (negative)
3) Does the subject increase target behavior (more desirable, reinforcement) or decrease behavior (less desirable, punishment)
Acquisition phase (schedule of reinforcement)
Refers to period during which new learning occurs
Extinction phase (schedule of reinforcement)
Refers to the period in which during reinforcement is withheld
Operant Strength
Strength of behavior. Measured by the rate of responding during both acquisition and extinction trials
Continuous Reinforcement
Simply, reinforcing every occurrence of the behavior. The best schedule for acquiring new behaviors but susceptible to satiation and extinction.
Ex: Giving candy every time Everett says “Daddy”
Satiation
Describes the phenomenon of a reinforcer losing its value through overuse
Thinning
Process of improving learning (by avoiding satiation and extinction) by transitioning from continuous to intermittent
Intermittent Reinforcement
Simply, the subject is not reinforced for every occurrence of the behavior (e.g., Fixed or variable; interval or ratio)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Reinforcement occurs the first time the target Bx is emitted after the fixed time interval has elapsed.
Ex: Taking Everett for ice cream after he completes homework provided at least a week (fixed interval) has passed since last reinforcement (ice cream).
Variable Interval (VI)
Reinforcement occurs the first time the target Bx is emitted after a variable, unpredictable interval of time has elapsed. Subject cannot anticipate when reinforcement might occur.
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Reinforcement occurs after a certain, unchanging number of responses are emitted.
Ex: A person is paid after every 500 envelopes stuffed
Variable Ratio (VR)
Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses are emitted.
Ex: Slot machine!
Which combination (Fixed or Variable; Ratio or Interval) results in greatest operant strength?
Variable Ratio > Fixed Ratio > Variable Interval > Fixed Interval
Keep in mind first that linking reinforcement to the actual behavior (i.e., ratio) is stronger than linking to a passage of time (interval). Next, remember unpredictability (variable) keeps the subject guessing and trying harder than predictability (fixed)
Resistance to Extinction
Resistance to extinction follows exactly the same pattern as operant strength during acquisition.
Order of most resistant to extinction: Variable Ratio > Fixed Ratio > Variable Interval > Fixed Interval
Operant Extinction
Results from ceasing to reinforce behavior that has previously been reinforced. At first, withholding reinforcement causes a response burst (increase of Bx) but eventually diminishes/extinguishes
Superstitious Behavior
Results from accidental reinforcement from non-contingent reinforcement (e.g., arbitrary, inconsistently applied)
Discrimination Learning (Stimulus Control)
Sometimes, target Bx are reinforced in certain circumstances but not others. Subject will learn which situation will provide reinforcement
Response Generalization
Refers to performing a behavior that is similar but not identical to the one that has been previously been reinforced.
Stimulus Generalization
Refers to when a subject begins to emit the target Bx in presence of stimuli similar but not exactly the same as the discriminative stimulus.
Prompting
Involves cueing the subject about what behavior to perform. Reduction in prompting is known as Fading.
Shaping by Successive Approximations
Involves teaching a subject to emit a desired Bx by providing reinforcement as the person gets closer and closer to the desired Bx.
Ex: Everett.. say “Daddy”… starts with “D” or “Dah..”
Chaining
Involves stringing together different Bx to accomplish a goal. Each distinct Bx in the sequence is mildly reinforced and serves as a cue.
Premack Principle
A Bx that is freely performed at a high frequency typically has strong reinforcing value. However, (per principle), the same activity may act as a stronger or weaker reinforcer depending on the context.
Ex: If you eat your spinach (low freq Bx), you can go out an play (high freq Bx).
Behavioral Contrast
A situation when two Bx are equally reinforced. When only one is reinforced, the one reinforced increases in frequency, and the other decreases.
Social Learning Theory (detailed)
Human learning and behavior cannot be fully explained by behavioral principles of reinforcement (operant conditioning) or association (classical conditioning). Instead, more compelx learning occurs through observation and modeling (imitation)
Ex: Bandura’s Bobo doll study
Ways modeled behavior are more likely to be imitated
High status, nurturant, and of the same sex as the observer
Reciprocal Determinism
According to which an interactive triad of the person, his/her Bx, and the environment regulate the individuals Bx.
Bandura’s Four steps of Observational Learning
1) attention (attending to the model)
2) retention (remembering what is seen/heard)
3) production (reproducing the memory during imitation)
4) motivation (reinforcement for accurate performance)
