Theories And Methods 💭 Flashcards

Question

Postmodernism and Relativism

Answer 1

Lyotard argues that this has led to "relativism" - our worlds are different to each others, because they're shaped by our experiences and understandings as well as choices. So we literally all live in our world. This means that there is little point in conducting large scale research, as everyone's experiences are different.

Answer 2

Postmodernists argue that modern life is characterised by far greater choice than has previously been available. Two studies from the research methods component could be used here. Just make sure the topic sentence answers this question. Kendal Project: a huge survey that found far greater religious choice in a working- class northern town. People participated in many non-traditional religious practices. Becky Tipper: children typically constructed their own version of families, often including non-relations, animals and even inanimate objects. Adults increasingly would do the same.

Answer 3

Baudrillard talks about symbols, and how our ability to interpret symbols in different ways means that society is 'speeding up'. This is hyperreality. The two key examples to use are the media and religion. Research to consider: Baudrillard, Lizek

Answer 4

Giddens argued that there is far greater, but not unlimited, choice in modern society. That is because we are shaped by society, but can in turn shape society back. For example, Giddens argued that gay men were pioneers of families of choice, and the communities that they formed became commonplace for everyone a decade later.

Answer 5

Ulrich Beck argued that a consequence of greater choice and connection in modern life was a greater awareness of risk. With that awareness came our understanding that we could do little about it. In particular, in modern life we cannot combat the risks facing us, leaving us feeling helpless. Beck calls this "risk society".

Answer 6

Marxists and feminists say that postmodernists underplay the levels of conflict in society. Postmodernists believe that structural inequality no longer exists, and any inequality is purely down to actions.

Answer 7

Jurgen Habermas is the most famous critic of postmodernism. He argues that postmodernism is obscurant: it actually makes it harder, not easier, to understand the world. This is because it uses complex terms and philosophical ideas that don't have any particular meaning.

Answer 8

These theories suggest that we are shaped by actions- either our own, or the actions of those around us. The most simple of all of these is interactionism, or symbolic interactionism. You could also include discourse feminism in here, although you would emphasize different ideas- the point here would be that it's our actions and discussions of gender that create the discourse (e.g. conversation).

Answer 9

Weber argues that "social actions" - actions that involve anyone other than the "actor" - shape society. He says there is a "cause and effect" relationship- our actions cause other actions, and so on, altering society. This leads to him being viewed as an early interactionist- although this term wouldn't exist in his lifetime.

Answer 10

Weber argued that this cause and effect causes social changes, for example the shift to capitalism. He argues that social actions shift towards rationalisation and away from 'enchantment, leading us to a bureaucratic and less passionate society.

Answer 11

Goffman's central argument is that we have no fixed self- we simply present ourselves in lots of different ways. For example, in one role a person may present themselves very differently to the same person in a different role. These presentations are influenced by how others respond, our own experiences, and our interpretations of the world and the roles we've fulfilled. Mortification is an attempt by institutions to change the way these roles are fulfilled, by stripping away our performances and reshaping them.

Answer 12

"Typifications" Essentially, we view our experiences through the lens of past experience. "This event is like this other event, so it means this". It argues that we are shaped not by moral entrepreneurs, but by our own unique experiences- and interpretations of these experiences. This argument is by Albert Shultz,

Answer 13

Essentially, phenomenologists argue that our understanding of the world is based entirely on past experience. This could be learnt from other people, but essentially, individuals continuously recreate the world by interpreting things (phenomena). Psychologists- this links to the idea of schema.

Answer 14

Associated with Howard Garfinkel. It involves using conversation analysis to make sense of everyday life. Essentially, ethnomethodologists are interested in how we understand everyday life, rather than the huge conflicts or structures of structural theories.

Answer 15

Many theories would say that, by picking up on tiny details of everyday life, Social Action Theories forget that the point of sociology is to encourage social change. Many would argue that Social Action Theories study the least important parts of society. Social Action Theories also share flaws with postmodernism, in that they can be obscurant. Habermas argues that, because social action theory dresses everyday concepts up in complex terminology, it actually makes the world harder to explain. Some postmodernists would argue that Social Action Theories tell us more about the researcher than the research group. For example, Conversation Analysis may tell us more about how ethnomethodologists understand the world, rather than everyday people. Weber is often criticised for selective use of information. Some have argued that his Protestant Ethic confuses cause and effect, and that Protestantism may actually be caused by Capitalism, rather than the other way round. Eisenstadt argues that there may in fact be no relationship. Marxists criticise his argument that capitalism is an inescapable "iron cage".