Theories Flashcards
Structural Theory Features
Starts with society as a whole and then analyses specific social institutions,
social structures and social groups
Interested in trends, structures and social forces so they are more likely to use
research methods that tend to generate quantitative, statistical data
Interested in social structures and can be considered ‘macro’ sociology
Structural Theory Advantages
Explains trends in society by looking at the ‘big picture’ and examining statistics
that show changes over time, allowing us to better understand society as a
whole
Shows the influence of structures on our lives by explaining the interactions that
occur between these structures and the individual. This shows the limitations of
individual human agency in changing society
Structural Theory Disadvantages
Has difficulty in explaining why some individuals seem to be able to make a
difference in society and are able to ‘escape’ the confines of the social forces
acting on them
Because it focuses on social structures, it has little to say about individual human
interactions between people. This means that there is a lot of human social
behaviour that seems to be ‘beneath’ the social perspective
Action Theory Features
Starts with individuals and groups as a whole and believes that communication,
language and shared understanding are very important
Interested in meaning, processes and interactions — more likely to use research
methods that generate qualitative data
Emphasises the role of human agency and is considered part of ‘micro’
sociology
Action Theory Advantages
Explains individual and small group interactions in society by looking at the way
people communicate with each other
Shows the influence of individuals on social structures and how they can make a
difference. Proves that lives are not predetermined, as implied by the structural
perspective
Action Theory Disadvantages
Can’t explain why the influence of structures is so difficult to escape
Concentrates on small-scale interactions and ignores the ‘big picture’
Consensus Theories features
To exist and flourish, society must have similar attitudes and beliefs and a broad
agreement on values
Societal beliefs are passed on through primary socialisation (in families) and
secondary socialisation (for example education)
Society is characterised by agreement and harmony, with different structures in
society having a controlling but beneficial influence over the lives of individuals
Consensus Theory Advantages
Recognises the role that socialisation plays in determining behaviour
Identifies the importance of society as an integrated whole with independent
parts
Consensus Theory Disadvantages
We cannot explain violent and radical social change with a theory that
emphasises consensus
By promoting social equilibrium, it is inherently conservative and against
progress in society
Conflict Theory Features
Believe that society is characterised by disagreement and oppression — there is
one group in society that has power over others
State that tensions and conflicts arise when resources, status and power are
unevenly distributed between groups in society, and that these conflicts become
the engine for social change
Understand power as control of material resources and accumulated wealth,
control of politics, and the institutions that make up society
Conflict Theory Advantages
Explains the strife and disharmony that characterises much of society today.
Shows how a power imbalance can cause tension
Explains why so many people feel helpless and unable to change their lives by
showing the influence that structures can have in shaping individuals into
predetermined roles
Conflict Theory Disadvantages
Can’t explain the persistence of modern Western societies as relatively stable
societies
Sometimes viewed as too negative. Some structures in society can be seen as
working for the common good, and some individuals are able to break through
barriers to success in their life
Feminism Features
inequality between men and women is universal, and the most significant form of
inequality that exists
gender norms and roles are socially constructed, not determined by biology, and
can therefore be changed
patriarchy is the main cause of gender inequality; women are subordinate
because men have more power and use the structures in society to perpetuate
this
Feminism Advantages
Feminism forces sociologists (and others) to include women in studies of society.
It used to be common when looking at issues such as social mobility to only
include men, as if women did not contribute to the workforce or count in society.
Feminists have highlighted the role of women.
Feminism explains the continuation of a gender pay gap in society by showing
how there are fundamental, structural barriers to progression placed in front of
women, despite females outperforming males in education.
Feminism has made changes in society, including the Equal Pay Acts and
anti-discrimination legislation. This shows that the feminism movement is a
political and campaigning force, not just a theoretical discussion, and has had an
impact on people’s lives.
Feminism Disadvantages
Structural feminism is criticised for accepting the nuclear family as central to society,
ignoring female breadwinners and dismissing the fact that women can abuse men
within relationships.
Feminists are varied in their beliefs; there are radical, liberal and Marxist feminists.
There is no consensus among different parts of the movement, and some are criticised
by others. Black feminists have been critical of the white, middle-class focus of much of
feminism. Marxist feminists have criticised other feminists who they believe are fighting
to have women as 50 per cent of their class oppressors.
Feminism is sometimes criticised for ignoring the reality that some women want to work
part-time or within the home of their own choosing, and not because of exploitation.
Weberism Features
Weber identified the concept of ‘Verstehen’, or empathetic understanding, which
he saw as crucial to understanding human action and social change. He
emphasised this point in his classic study The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism (Weber, 1905).
Weber saw the importance of structures and class but believed that, in addition
to class, status and party were important groupings in society.
In addition to recognising the role of structures, Weberism is a social action
theory. Weber identified four types of ‘ideal’ social action: traditional, affective,
value-rational and instrumental rational.
Weberism Advantages
Weber recognised that, to understand society, we need to understand the
meanings behind the actions of individuals. He directed sociological study to the
deciphering of these meanings, based on a value-free observation of societies,
taking their context into account.
In addition to recognising the importance of class, Weber identified status and
party as ways in which people can be grouped and socially stratified.
Weber showed that individual motives can lead to huge structural changes. The
emergence of capitalism is given as an example of this.
Weberism Disadvantages
Weber is criticised by Marxists for mistaking the false divisions sown by
capitalism for actual stratifications in society. Status and party can be viewed as
minor distractions compared to the actual grouping of class linked to economic
position.
Weber is also criticised by other social action theorists for seeing past the
importance of structures. Interactionists would say that Weber should have gone
further in recognising the role of individual interactions in shaping society, and
not retained the notion of structures having a role as separate from that created
by individuals.
Weber’s theory on the emergence of capitalism has been criticised, as there is
evidence of elements of capitalism predating Protestantism.
Symbolic Interactionalism features
Symbolic interactionists believe that sociology should be concerned with the
interactions that individuals have. Interactionists believe we live in a richly
symbolic world and that we need to understand the meaning behind these
symbols and their mutual acceptance to comprehend society.
The notion of ‘self’ is key in symbolic interactionism. The importance of others in
the formation of self-concepts is captured in Cooley’s term ‘the looking-glass self’
[Cooley, C.H. (1902) Human Nature and the Social Order]. This is the idea that
individuals see themselves as they think others see them.
Self-conceptions and self-feelings (for example pride or shame) are a
consequence of how people imagine others perceive and evaluate them.
Symbolic Interactionalism Advantages
An emphasis on human agency shows the importance of the active, goal-seeking
character of human actors. This reflects a reality that many would recognise.
Symbolic interactionism recognises that human beings are social beings. Although it
concentrates on the importance of individuals, it is within the context of social
communication.
Symbolic interactionism can be applied to the use of social networking sites and how
one’s identity is presented on those sites. With social networking sites, people can
boast (or post) their identity through their newsfeed. The personal identity presents
itself in the need for individuals to post milestones that one has achieved, in efforts
to differentiate themselves from others. The social identity presents itself when
individuals ‘tag’ others in their posts and pictures.
Symbolic Interactionalism Disadvantages
Symbolic interactionism is often criticised for its lack of testability. Combined with
the narrow focus of interactionist research on small-group interactions, the
theory seems insubstantial compared to overarching theories that can be tested
by quantitative research.
Symbolic interactionism is difficult to extrapolate from. It may be interesting to
look at the exchange of symbols between individuals, but it is more difficult to
say what this tells us about wider society.
Symbolic interactionism looks at individual interpretations but not the origin of
meanings that are held in common. The theory underplays the role of structures
in creating and spreading the meanings that we might believe we have created
ourselves.
Functionalism features
Believes that a shared set of norms and values creates a consensus in society.
These are passed on through primary and secondary socialisation
Interested, above all, in social order. Believes that various structures allow
societies to function properly. These include education; legal; religious; and
economic systems. These structures shape the lives of individuals in ways that
benefit society
Functionalism Advantages
Explains the relative stability of Western societies over time by showing how a
shared set of norms and values can produce a consensual society.
Explains inequality in society and how its persistence can even be beneficial, as
each part of society works together at different levels and contributes, regardless
of their relative position. Movement is possible through social mobility.
Explains ‘fundamental goals’ (pursuit of wealth, achievement of status and
respect, and the need for autonomy) and shows how they keep most people
working in harmony by striving for the same things. Explains crime and deviance
using Merton’s strain theory.
Functionalism Disadvantages
Conflict theorists, such as Marxists, argue that functionalism is a ‘conservative
ideology’ that focuses on harmony and stability rather than struggle, which
seems a large part of many lives.
Justifies inequality and therefore excuses societal inaction to try to reduce or
eradicate pay and wealth gaps.
Portrays an idealised society from a mythical 1950s America, which never
existed for many people, even at the time. Dismisses structural inequalities, such
as race, gender and generational poverty, which demonstrate that society is not
meritocratic.
