Theories Flashcards
1
Q
Semiotics - Roland Barthes
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- Semiotics is the study of signs are their deeper meanings. Every symbol or sign has a surface level meaning called the denotation, but also a more symbolic and deeper meaning called a connotation. He proposed different types of codes, including action codes (signify something will occur as a result of the sign), enigma codes (mystery that engages audiences), and cultural codes (understandable when part of particular culture.)
- In newspapers, producers regularly use codes to promote their ideology. Colours may be used, including red to connote importance. Papers, especially tabloids, also commonly use cultural codes in the format of common sayings to convey their viewpoint on the story.
2
Q
Structuralism - Claude Levi-Strauss
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- Media products are encoded with binary oppositions. Producers promote parts of their stories as completely opposite to create competition and drama, but also force audiences to compare the two things they are discussing and potentially agree with the producers viewpoint as one will be promoted more strongly.
- Newspapers constantly use binary oppositions- when discussing political parties, they constantly compare and contrast the parties and political figures in accordance to their political ideology.
3
Q
Genre Theory - Stephen Neale
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- Genre is ‘instances of repetition and difference’ according to Neale. Media products conform to certain genre conventions to be classified in a genre, but also add some variation to allow the product to be more fresh and modern.
- Newspapers are separated into genres: broadsheets typically feature more text than images, less sensationalization, more intellectual details and harder news stories, while tabloids commonly feature large, dramatic images, sensationalist headlines in bold text and softer news stories. This is repetition. However, they do sometimes use different elements depending on the story, like broadsheets featuring softer news stories, as more audiences are interested in less serious topics like celebrities in modern times.
4
Q
Narrative Theory - Todorov
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- Narratives are made up of multiple standard stages including equilibrium, disruption of equilibrium, recognition of disruption, repair, and restored equilibrium.
- This structure is regularly visible in newspaper stories, as media producers often discuss the equilibrium prior to an event happening, the actual disruption of the event, and then the response to that. They don’t always reach restored equilibrium as that often takes time to do, but may feature that in a later story.
5
Q
Power and Media Industries - Curran and Seaton
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- Media industries are controlled by a small number of extremely powerful people. They prioritise profit and power over originality and creativity, leading to media products sometimes becoming stagnant and repetitive. Curran and Seaton suggest that more independent smaller producers bring more originality and creativity to the industry and allow for more diversity in their products.
- However, a limitation is that the theory doesn’t take into account the power the audiences have over the content. The newspapers publish stories and content that appeal to their audiences. Creativity and originality isn’t necessarily going to satisfy audiences.
- 90% of the newspaper industry is owned by 3 straight, white, wealthy men, who prioritise profit and power. The Daily Mail is a right-wing proprietor owned mid-market, meaning that a lot of their news conforms to a similar viewpoint, reducing diversity. The Guardian is the only not-for-profit trust owned newspaper and they prioritise creativity and freedom of expression for their journalists, leading to more diversity and originality.
6
Q
Media Industries - David Hesmondhalgh
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- Media industries are dominated by a small number of conglomerates who prioritise power and profit. They avoid risk to maximise their success. Hesmondhalgh says they do this through vertical integration (purchasing companies throughout the production / distribution of their product) and horizontal integration (purchasing competitors).
- However, this is opposed by examples like The Guardian, who is independent and does not prioritise power/ profit but also incredibly dominant and influential in the industry.
- In news, horizontal integration is most common. 90% of the industry is owned by 3 people. The Daily Mail is owned by The Daily Mail Group, who also owns competitors including i and Metro. This reduces their competition. The Guardian is the only independent major newspaper, standing out from the conglomerates in power. Vertical integration in news would involve controlling journalists, publishing/ printing, distribution and marketing.
7
Q
Postcolonialism Theory - Paul Gilroy
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- The effects of colonisation is still seen in the media today, when Western countries still try to maintain the idea of them being more powerful and everyone else less. Other countries are alienated or presented as the ‘other’. Some products display post-colonial guilt and question their countries involvement, whereas some display postcolonial melancholia, which is when they think nostalgically on the past and still assume a position of power over other countries.
- This is very often present in newspapers, especially right wing papers that often take on a ‘patriotic’ viewpoint toward stories that becomes xenophobic and racist. These newspapers will often discuss immigration stories in a negative way, suggesting that the UK is more powerful and more important than the countries the immigrants came from due to their postcolonial melancholia.
8
Q
Representation Theory - Stuart Hall
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- Media products are encoded with the views of the producers. The audience then decode these codes and conventions to uncover the message. They often use stereotypes for certain social groups. This can have negative effects and warp the public’s view of these groups.
- Stereotypes are used throughout newspapers constantly. We can look at how the producers use them to display their message and how the represent the social group or person they are talking about. Right wing papers have often been known to employ racially aggressive stereotypes on ethnic minorities, while sexualising females by using stereotypes on them too.
9
Q
Concept of the Patriarchy - Liesbet van Zoonen
A
- Men and women are objectified and represented in extremely different ways in the media. Gender is based on the performance and conformity to human created expectations that are informed and influenced by our cultures and the times. The male body is often treated as a spectacle that has been worked for, compared to the female body that is associated with trying to be dominant and strong. The media reflect patriarchal values in many ways, often influencing our views of gender. With shifts in culture, our ideas of masculinity and femininity are becoming more fluid and allowing people to vary their gender expression.
- Newspapers are a prime example of the patriarchal view point. Women are regularly sexualised and objectified on tabloid papers as it caters to the male gaze. We can analyse how they present the women on their paper and compare that with how they represent men.
10
Q
Feminist Theory- bell hooks
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- Feminism is a political movement aiming to put an end to the social hegemony leaving women less powerful. hooks suggested that feminism is closely linked with intersectionality, suggesting that when people have other minority characteristics, like being part of an ethnic minority, they are presented as even less important by the media or aren’t represented at all. The oppression of a woman depends on her class, race, sexuality and ability.
- For example, the media represents white women much more than black women or women with disabilities. We should analyse if newspapers comment on women of different social groups and how they do that. Right-wing papers are typically more inclined to be less positive toward women, especially those of other social groups, whereas left wing papers may represent women more and in a more positive manner.
11
Q
Gender Performativity - Judith Butler
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- Gender is a result of the repeated performance of expectations and roles constructed by society. Gender trouble is experienced when one doesn’t feel as though they fit into society’s binary opposition gender roles. Butler also rejects binary oppositions like gay/ straight, suggesting that gender/ social roles are much more fluid.
- Newspapers commonly present social groups as binary opposites and promote rigid gender roles. Butler would oppose this. We should analyse how they represent gender and the stereotypes they use to construct an expectation of gender performance.
12
Q
Media Effects - Albert Bandura
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- Bandura conducted a psychology study into how children would be influenced by witnessing violence displayed by an adult. His theory implies that audiences will be influenced by media products.
- However, Bandura’s theory fails to take into account that audiences are much less inclined to agree with a single viewpoint as a wider range are now more accessible. Also, he disregards their autonomy, they aren’t necessarily going to blindly conform to the media’s views.
- The Guardian and The Daily Mail commonly have directly oppositional viewpoints. Bandura’s theory would suggest that readers of The Guardian are going to blindly agree with their views, like the readers of The Daily Mail, who are going to adopt the papers’ right wing ideologies. With modern technology and the development of the internet, audiences have less newspaper loyalty, so readers of each of these papers are much less likely to be influenced by their views.
13
Q
Cultivation Theory - George Gerbner
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- The media will repeat representations of certain social groups repeatedly. This will influence audiences to gradually build up stereotypes of these social groups. This repeated representation of people can gradually alter the dominant ideologies in society, potentially causing negativity toward a certain group.
- Gerbner’s theory ignores audience autonomy, neglecting to accept that audiences can choose to disagree with the media’s ideologies, but also ignores that the internet has made different viewpoints easier to access, reducing newspaper loyalty. Therefore, repeated representations are going to be less effective in altering the dominant ideologies.
- The Daily Mail, as well as other xenophobic right wing papers, have repeatedly presented migrants and people of ethnic backgrounds as dangerous to our country, leading to a large public belief of them being a danger to us. This was achieved through repeated negative representation. We also see this between the political parties: The Guardian repeatedly presents Labour positively, and Conservatives negatively, leading to audiences disliking to the Tories.
14
Q
End of Audience Theory - Clay Shirky
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0 Audiences have become much more active in the media, gaining the ability to ‘talk back’ to media producers and influence the products published in the media. Technology has led to an expectation of audiences being able to interact. Newspapers have websites and social media platforms that allow users to comment/ share and tell producers how they feel about the stories, influencing the news the paper reports on and the way they go about.
- Although, media producers can easily silence audiences by turning off comments or limiting how they can interact with stories.
- The Guardian and The Daily Mail now have a large online presence. However, The Guardian regularly limit audience interaction, turning off comments on their online articles most of the time, and limiting how they can interact on social media. This forces audiences into a more passive role. The Daily Mail allow audiences to interact more than The Guardian, allowing them to enter a more dominant role in what the paper publishes.
15
Q
Reception Theory - Stuart Hall
A
0 Stuart Hall suggests that media producers encode their products with symbols and signs that create a meaning. This is then decoded by audiences in different ways. Some audience members will take the preferred reading, which is the intended meaning of the producer. Others will take an oppositional reading, which completely opposes the intended meaning. However, some may take a negotiated reading and accept some parts of the message while rejecting others.
- In newspapers, people may gravitate toward papers that are aligned with their political ideologies. Therefore, more people are likely to accept the preferred reading and agree with producers. However, online news makes it easier to access other ideologies and messages, allowing people to take an oppositional are negotiated reading more.
- Arguably, the theory implies that there’s a single dominant message in a media product that people can either agree, partially agree or disagree with. The theory ignores the idea that products can have multiple meanings and messages within it.
