Theories Flashcards
Describe and evaluate the MSM
The MSM theory states that there are separate stores for memory rather than just one, and was proposed in 1960.
There are 3 stores for memory: sensory, short term and long term stores. The sensory store receives information from the senses and this information is stored in the same way as it is received. Information only stays here for less than a second but if you are paying attention, information moves from this store to the short term store.
The short term store receives information from the sensory store, and information is encoded here mainly acoustically. Information only stays here for about 30 seconds, but the short term store has a capacity of approximately 7 bits. If information in this store is rehearsed, it moves on to the long term store.
The long term store receives information from the short term store, and its capacity and duration is unlimited. Information is encoded mainly semantically.
A strength - supporting research from Murdock’s serial position curve study
Another strength - practical application for students (how to revise effectively)
A weakness - does not account for flashbulb memories (memories of traumatic events which are not rehearsed but still make it to long term)
Describe and evaluate the three types of long term memory
According to this theory, there are 3 types of long term memory:
Episodic memory - the memory of past events and experiences, for example the first time you went to the dentist or the first day at a new school
Semantic memory - the memory of facts and knowledge for example the knowledge that Paris is the capital of France
Procedural memory - the memory of how to do things, muscle memory, for example how to ride a bike or play the piano
A strength - supporting evidence from Tulving’s gold study (brain scans showed that when participants thought of a semantic memory, the back of the brain lit up whereas when participants thought of an episodic memory, the frontal area of the brain lit up on the scan)
Another strength - supporting evidence from case studies of Clive Wearing (could play the piano (procedural was intact) but couldn’t remember things from his past or facts (episodic and semantic damaged))
A weakness - hard to separate episodic and semantic memories as you need to have a past experience of learning something before you know it (you will remember a particularly interesting science lesson but is it episodic because it was an experience or is it semantic because you learned something?)
Describe and evaluate the reconstructive memory theory
Bartlett’s reconstructive memory theory states that memory is not an accurate recollection of events that happened, rather our brain goes through a process called ‘effort after meaning’ and fills in gaps in your memory with your own beliefs and ideas of the world. The theory states that memory is rather an active process.
A strength - supporting research from Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
Another strength - practical application in the court system (eye witnesses and whether they really are accurate)
A weakness - supporting study is weak (not generalizable, lacks ecological validity)
Describe and evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development states that children go through 4 different developmental stages in their life.
The sensorimotor stage includes children between the ages of 0-2 years old. Children in this stage use their senses, mainly touch and taste, to explore the world around them. At 8 months old, they develop object permanence, the knowledge that an object still exists even if it is not visible.
The preoperational stage includes children between the ages of 2-7 years old. Children in this stage are egocentric, meaning that they are unable to put themselves in other people’s shoes and see things from their point of view.
The concrete operation stage includes children between the ages of 7-11 years old. Children in this stage can apply logic to concrete objects, and so need counters or blocks to solve problems like math equations. Children in this stage also develop conservation, which is the knowledge that the amount of an object stays the same even if its appearance changes (the same amount of water can be poured into a tall glass and a small glass, but a child under 7 years will think that the tall glass has more water).
The formal operational stage includes children of 11 years and above. Children in this stage can apply logic to solve abstract as well as physical problems.
A strength - practical applications in education (concept of readiness, child centered approach, use of concrete objects)
A weakness - supporting studies are not valid
Another weakness - refuted by McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy study
Describe and evaluate Dweck’s theory of mindsets
Dweck’s theory of mindsets, or the theory of motivation states that there are two types of mindsets: one where students believe they can do better and one where students believe their intelligence is fixed.
Fixed mindset - students with this mindset believe that their intelligence is unchangeable and due to genetics. People with this mindset don’t do well when faced with challenges and give up fairly easily.
Growth mindset - students with this mindset believe that if they study enough and work hard, they will be able to get more intelligent. People with this mindset attempt and keep attempting challenges because they know that they can pass.
A strength - practical application (encourage teachers to give students a growth mindset, by giving them small challenges to overcome and boost their confidence in their own intelligence)
Another strength - supporting evidence (from a study that split underachieving year 7 students into two groups, one group was told that physical changes occur in the brain when we learn, and the other group was not given this treatment. It was found that the group that was taught about the changes that occur in the brain went on to study harder and their fixed mindset changed to a growth mindset, whereas the other group experienced no change)
Describe and evaluate the VAK learning styles theory
The VAK learning styles theory states that there are three different types of learning styles which students prefer. These include:
Visual learning style
Visual learners learn by reading or seeing pictures. They like to see things when they learn and remember things by their appearance.
Auditory learning style
Auditory learners learn by listening to things like videos or voice overs. They like to hear information while they’re learning and remember things the way they hear them.
Kinesthetic learning style
Kinesthetic learners learn by physically doing the activities. These people like to do and make models while they’re learning and remember things best when activities are involved.
There are also two types of people according to this theory, which are:
Verbalizers:
Verbalizers process information verbally and think using words. They learn information better when they read or write it down. They use verbal rehearsal to remember information such as repeating words over and over again.
A strength - practical applications
A weakness - too many learning styles for teachers to keep up with and accommodate in their lessons
Another weakness - refuted by Willingham
Describe and evaluate Willingham’s theory of learning
Willingham found that there was no such thing as a ‘verbalizer’ and a ‘visualizer’. He also found that there was no difference in exam results when the students were taught in their preferred learning style compared to when they were taught without it.
Willingham’s learning theory states that:
If students understand the meaning of something, its visual or audio presentation does not matter
The type of earning should fit the content being taught for example, art should be using a kinesthetic approach to learning and so should PE
If students find a particular learning style difficult, they should be pushed to practice learning in that way
A strength - practical applications
A weakness - taking out creativity from learning
Another weakness - refuted by learning styles
Describe and evaluate Gibson’s direct theory of perception
I A D E C A
Gibson’s theory states that perception is innate, adaptive, direct, ecological and based on cues and affordances.
Innate & adaptive - perception is ingrained in us and is purely adaptive as it would have helped our ancestors survive in the past
Direct & ecological - perception is direct, meaning that no higher cognitive processes need to take place in order for us to perceive (sensation = perception). Perception is ecological meaning that our environment and surroundings have enough information for us to perceive depth and distance (gradient of color, gradient of texture)*.
Based on cues - perception is based on visual cues such as motion parallax, which is when objects closer to us appear to move faster than objects further away.
Based on affordances - we perceive things not only on what they are, but on their uses as well. For example, if we see a pair of scissors for the very first time, we will know that their use is to cut paper.
A strength - supporting evidence from the visual cliff experiment
A weakness - reductionist
Another weakness - refuted by Bruner and Minturn
Describe and evaluate Gregory’s constructivist theory of perception
Perception is constructed (perceptual hypothesis based on past knowledge)
Suggests that our perception of the world is constructed and based on two things: past experiences and inferences. We perceive the world actively and make reasonable guesses, or inferences, about what we think is most likely to happen (perceptual hypothesis). Using information from past knowledge and experiences. Since it uses past experiences, perception is due to nurture.
Constructivist explanation (Individual difference in perception) Sensation and perception are not the same because we actively construct it using inference, sensation and cognitive processes. As we get older and interact with the world, our perception becomes more sophisticated. We have different past experiences therefore our perception may be different. Our past experiences and culture influence how we perceive the world.
What do visual illusions show about the constructivist theory of perception?
Gregory argues that visual illusions offer good evidence for the constructivist’s theory of perception.
Visual illusions such as the Ponzo Illusion happens when our perception system is misusing strategies to make sense of the information it receives. The fact that we can pick the wrong strategies and inaccurate inferences shows us that our mind has control over how to interpret the information we see. This shows that perception is due to cognitive processes and is done using our stored knowledge and experience.
Top down theory
Gregory’s theory is a top-down process - higher mental processes shape the way we interpret the basic information that our eyes receive. Perception is influenced by nurture and all the learning and past experiences we have.
A strength - supported by Bruner and Minturn
A weakness - reductionist
Another weakness - refuted by visual cliff experiment
Describe and evaluate Piaget’s theory of linguistic development
Piaget believed that language depends on thought and that only after cognitive development can the language start to develop: we can only use language in line with the developmental stage we are in.
Sensorimotor stage (0-2) - In this stage babies start making sounds and then start to repeat the sounds others make. You can repeat the word ‘bad’ to a baby and they will eventually learn how to say it, but they will not be able to understand its meaning.
Preoperational stage (2-7) - Children in the preoperational stage are egocentric and focus on themselves, and their speech reflects this. They use language to voice their internal thoughts and do not use it to communicate with others, for example, a toddler will say ‘me is tired’ instead of asking how you are.
Concrete operational (7-11) - Language develops as they can now talk about others, but only speak about things that are physically present and not abstract concepts, for example, a seven year old child can easily count the number of cars but cannot talk about abstract things such as psychology.
Formal operational (11+) - Children in this stage can now solve abstract problems and so their language can now be used to talk about abstracts and theoretical ideas, such as psychology.
A strength - supporting studies are ecologically valid (done on his own children in their natural environment with someone they are familiar with so results are accurate)
A weakness - supporting evidence lacks generalizability (done on his own children who were French, cannot be applied to children who speak different languages or grew up in households with competing languages)
Another weakness - refuted by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Describe and evaluate the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Sapir-Whorf believes our thoughts and behaviors are affected by the language that we speak.
Linguistic relativity means that the language that we speak determines our cognition and understanding of the world around us. Cultures with different languages have different views and thoughts of the world. Even within the same language there can be differences in how words are understood. Language also affects memory as it is hard to remember things we have no words for.
Whorf and Boas (1911) Inuit study found that the Inuit people had 27 different words for snow, showing that they have a very sophisticated understanding and knowledge of snow.
This shows that culture affects language which then affects thinking.
A strength - supporting evidence from the Tarahamura tribe (have the same word for blue and green and English speakers have different words, so English speakers are better at perceiving differences between shades of blue and green because they have different words for them)
Another strength - recall of events (a person broke a vase on purpose and Spanish and English speakers were asked to recall what happened. Both languages were able to recall the event accurately, but when the vase-breaking was unintentional, Spanish speakers had a harder time recalling the event as they did not have a word for it)
A weakness - refuted by Piaget
Describe and evaluate Darwin’s theory
Charles Darwin, in his evolutionary theory, suggested that species change and adapt over time in response to their environment in order to increase the likelihood of survival. He proposed this happened through natural selection with genes for characteristics that improve the chance of survival or reproduction passed on to the next generation.
Survival itself is not actually the most important factor in the selection of genes but reproduction. Darwin said that characteristics that promote survival and reproduction are adaptive because they give individuals a genetic advantage.
He suggested that non-verbal communication had evolved in humans and animals as a way of expressing emotions and animals and humans may share certain behaviors because we share mutual ancestors. For example, a robin may puff out its chest to seem bigger in order to warn away possible predators, a behavior also shown by humans. Also, a human may display fear by widening their eyes therefore allowing more light to enter the eye and therefore improving the individual’s sight and their chance of survival.
Some non verbal behaviors we display today may not necessarily have the same purpose e.g. Baring your teeth does not warn others that you will bite them like it might for an animal, however, it does serve a function of letting others know our emotions. These traits are known as serviceable habits.
A strength - supporting evidence from neonates (newborns) (when given a lemon, they wrinkled their nose and made a disgusted face just like adults do, showing that facial expressions are innate)
A weakness - not all NVCs are innate (different hand gestures might mean different things in different cultures e.g. the ‘ok’ hand gesture means alright in the US, but in Japan it symbolizes money and in Germany, white supremacy)
Another weakness - not all forms of NVC are adaptive (Japanese people bow to each other in greeting, which has no use as a serviceable habit, and neither does smiling at someone when you see them for the first time)
Describe and evaluate the James-Lange theory of emotion
William James and Carl Lange proposed two very similar theories to explain the relationship between physiological activity and the emotions we experience at the same time that became known as the James-Lange theory of emotion.
Event > Arousal > Interpretation > Emotion
Event An event (maybe taking an exam) activates the hypothalamus which instructs the sympathetic division of the ANS.
Arousal
This leads to the release of adrenaline which creates physiological arousal. This increases our heart rate, sweating, etc.
Interpretation
Our brain then makes an interpretation about the physiological changes and decides how we then feel.
Emotion
Depending on the interpretation, we then feel and emotion. This might be fear, excitement etc. and in this case when you sit down to take the exam, your brain recognizes fear or anxiety
Example
An example of this happening is if you’re driving and you suddenly swerve and almost crash. This is the event that triggers the hypothalamus to activate the sympathetic division of the ANS, leading to the release of adrenaline which causes your heart rate to increase, pupils to dilate, etc.. Then, your brain makes an interpretation of the situation, causing you to feel fear.
A weakness - challenged by the Cannon Bard theory (argues that we feel physical and emotional changes at the same time e.g. we feel embarrassed and start turning red at the same time)
Another weakness - reductionist as it does not take into account social cues (for example, the same physiological changes can be interpreted differently depending on the situation e.g. and increased heart rate during an exam would lead to your brain recognizing the emotion as anxiety, but an increased heart rate while meeting your favorite celebrity would be interpreted as excitement
Describe and evaluate Hebb’s theory of neural growth
If a neuron repeatedly excites and is active, neuronal growth takes place and its synaptic terminal becomes bigger and the synapse gets smaller. When neurons are close by and active and excited together, they form a connection with each other known as a neural pathway. These combinations of neurons are called ‘cell assemblies’ where each cell forms a single processing unit of information.
A strength - supporting evidence from London taxi drivers who had taken the ‘Knowledge test’ of memorizing every road and shortcut in London (their hippocampus, responsible for memory, was much larger than normal people)
A weakness - reductionist as it reduces learning down to just neuronal changes (what about Piaget? Schemas?)
