Theme 2: Theories of Human Dev.

Question 1

how the study of human dev. began

Answer 1

early beginnings:
1. baby biographies (scholars observed the growth and dev. of their own children (Darwin made daily records)
However: difficult to compare and subject to the individual baby

2. G. Stanley Hall: Founder of dev. psych; introduced questionnaires and studied life stages like adolescence and old age.

Question 2

Role of Theories in Development

Answer 2

1. Purpose: Theories organize knowledge, guide research, and provide explanations.
2. Good Theory:
   = Falsifiable: Can be tested and potentially proven wrong.
   = Data-Supported: Predictions should align with research findings.
3. Functions: Clarifies:
   What to study.
   Predictions and hypotheses.
   Research methods.
   Interpretation of findings.

Question 3

what are the 3 Core Issues in Human Development

Answer 3

1. Nature vs. Nurture:
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity:
3. Universality vs. Context-Specificity

Question 4

Core Issue in Human Development (1)

Answer 4

Nature vs. Nurture:
1. Nature: Biological factors (genes, maturation, evolution).
2. Nurture: Environmental influences (social context, learning).

*issue: Is development primarily the product of biology (nature) or of experience (nurture)

Question 5

Core Issue in Human Development (2)

Answer 5

Continuity vs. Discontinuity:
1. Continuity: dev. occurs in gradual, quantitative changes, smoothly over time (e.g., growth in height).
2. Discontinuity: dev is abrupt, qualitative changes from one stage to next (e.g., stages of puberty).

Question 6

Core Issue in Human Development (3)

Answer 6

Universality vs. Context-Specificity:
1. Universality: Common developmental patterns across all humans.
2. Context-Specificity: Development varies based on cultural and environmental contexts.

Question 7

what are the 5 Influential Theoretical Perspectives

Answer 7

1. Evolutionary Theory: Darwin;
   * adaptation and survival.
   * Studies behaviors like attachment and cooperation through an evolutionary lens.
   * interact between nature & nurture

2.Psychoanalytic Theory:
* Examines unconscious drives and early experiences shaping dev.

3.Learning Theories:
* Focuses on behavior shaped by environment, reinforcement, and learning processes.

4.Cognitive-Developmental Theory:
*Studies changes in thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.

5. Bioecological Systems Theory:
   * Views dev. as influenced by interactions between individuals and multiple environmental layers.

Question 8

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

Answer 8

psycho. theory = emphasises biological instincts & unconscious motivation
*newborns are selfish & driven by instincts
instincts = bio. forces that motivate behaviour (mental energy that fuels behaviour)
*unconscious motivation = power of instincts to influence our behaviour without our awareness

Question 9

3 parts of personality (Freud)

Answer 9

1. id = impulsive, selfish, irrational part of personality, driven by primitive instincts
2. ego: rational side of indiv. that tried to find realistic ways of gratifying instincts (id)
3. individuals internalised morals and standards

Question 10

why balance between id, ego and superego is important (Freud)

Answer 10

when unbalanced it causes conflict internally

Question 11

what is libido (Freud)

Answer 11

the psychic energy of the sex instinct
* Freud says as a child matures - libido shifts from one part of the body to another (seeks to gratify different biological needs)

Question 12

what are Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages of development

Answer 12

oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital

Question 13

what is fixation in psychosexual stages (Freud)

Answer 13

arrested development in one part of the libido = remains stuck in a stage

Question 14

stage 1: psychosexual stages of dev. (freud)

Answer 14

oral (1st year)
= libido is focused on mouth as source of pleasure
- oral gratification from mother very nb. for future dev.
*need not satisfied = anxiety and self defence, example: weened too early
FIXATION= over eating, smoking

Question 15

stage 2: psychosexual stages of dev. (freud)

Answer 15

anal (1-3)
= libido - anus & bladder
- toilet training - conflict bet. biological urges & social demands
- punishment = anxiety
* personality = resist demands from authority figures

Question 16

stage 3: psychosexual stages of dev. (freud)

Answer 16

phallic (3-6)
libido = genitals
- resolution of the oedipus and electra complex (desire from opposite sex parent)
result = identify with same sex parent
- superego developed
- they adopt their gender role

Question 17

stage 4: psychosexual stages of dev. (freud)

Answer 17

latent (6-12)
- libido = quiet
- psychic energy is focused on school work and play with same sex friends

Question 18

stage 5: psychosexual stages of dev. (freud)

Answer 18

genital (12+)
libido = genitals
- puberty awakens sexual urges
- seek to establish mature sexual relationships
- pursue goal of reproduction

Question 19

Freud’s defence mechanisms

Answer 19

unconscious coping devices the ego adopts to defend itself against anxiety that occurs as conflicts arise

Question 20

what are Freud’s 2 defence mechanisms

Answer 20

1. repression =
   * removing unacceptable thoughts or traumatic memories from consciousness
   = e.g. women is raped -> no recollection of events
2. Regression:
   * retreating to an early stage of development
   e.g. girl with newborn baby brother may revert to acting like an infant

Question 21

Erik Erikson

Answer 21

*Non-Freud psychoanalytical theorist
*Less emphasis on sexual urges & id
* Positive view on human nature
* more emphasis on social influences, rational ego and on development after adolescence

Question 22

introduction to Eriksons stages

Answer 22

1. humans go through 8 psychosocial stages
2. forced to move onto different stages even if you don’t resolve one of these stages
3. Will effect future stages if you don’t resolve the stage -
   Start from infant and end when older

Question 23

what are Erikson’s 8 psychosocial stages:

Answer 23

1.Trust vs mistrust
2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt 3.industry vs inferiority
4.identity vs role confusion
5.intimacy vs isolation
6. generativity vs stagnation 7.integrity vs despair

Question 24

first 4 psychosocial stages (Erikson)

Answer 24

1: Trust vs. mistrust (1st year)
* Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs.
* Responsive parenting is critical

2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (1-3)
   * Children must learn to be autonomous or they will doubt their abilities
3. Initiative vs. guilt (3-5)
   * Preschool years
   * Develop initiative by devising and carrying out plans but must learn not to impinge on the rights of others
4. Industry vs. inferiority (6-12)
   * Primary school
   * Children must master NB social and academic skills and keep up with their peers or they will feel inferior

Question 25

last 4 psychosocial stages (Erikson)

Answer 25

5. Identity vs. confusion (12 - 20)
   * Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social & vocational identities or they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults.
   * “identity crisis”
6. Intimacy vs. isolation (20 - 40)
   * Seek to form a shared identity with another, but may fear intimacy & experience loneliness & isolation.
7. Generativity vs. stagnation (40 - 65)
   * Middle aged. Feel like they must produce something that will outlive them or they will become stagnant & self-centred
8. Integrity vs. despair (65+)
   * Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death without worries and regrets

Question 26

learning theories

Answer 26

1. NURTURE IS EVERYTHING: NO MATTER YOUR FAMILY I CAN SHAPE YOU INTO ANYTHING

Question 27

watson (LT)

Answer 27

Watsons’s behaviourism = human dev. & functioning should be based on observations of obvious behaviour, rather that unobservable cognitive & emotional processes.

Question 28

classical conditioning (LT)

Answer 28

Pavlov
= Form of learning in which a stimulus comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response
* Pavlov stated that fears and emotional responses can be learned

Question 29

little albert experiment (classical conditioning) (LT)

Answer 29

*condition an emotional response
- Albert exposed to stimuli that did not elicit a response
- exposed him to a white rabbit paired with a banging sound
- albert conditioned to fear the white rat

Question 30

Learning theorists view development

Answer 30

1. nothing more than learning.
2. Development is a continuous process of behaviour change.
3. It is context specific
4. Can differ from person to person

Question 31

Skinner: Operant Conditioning (LT)

Answer 31

1. Learner behaves in some way & associates this action with the positive or negative consequences that follow.
   + People repeat behaviours with desirable consequences
   - decrease behaviours with undesirable consequences.

Question 32

skinner box (LT)

Answer 32

a controlled environment used to study behavior.
- has a lever or button that an animal (rat or pigeon) can manipulate to receive rewards (like food) or avoid punishments (like shocks)

Question 33

Skinner: reinforcement (LT)

Answer 33

consequence strengthens a response / makes it more likely to occur
+ Positive reinforcement= Event that makes that behaviour more probable (food)
- Negative reinforcement = Behaviour is strengthened because something unpleasant is removed or is avoided after the behaviour occurs (shock)

Question 34

Diff. Between reinforcing and punishment (LT)

Answer 34

1. reinforce = repeat, give you something you like
2. Punishment = decreases the strength of the behaviour
   (adding and taking away, can be positive and negative)
   * Positive pun = unpleasant stimulus is the consequence of a behaviour (add)
   * Negative pun = when a desirable stimulus is removed following the behaviour (taking away / removing)

Answer 35

Add + positive stimulus = strengthens the behaviour (giving in to kids crying and gives them a sweet so crying is more likely to occur in the future)

Add + unpleasant stimulus = positive punishment (weakens behaviour, calling a child ‘baby’ = neg reaction and won’t whine)

Take away + unpleasant stimulus = neg reinforcement, taking away a pleasant stimulus (the child learns that if they throw a tantrum they get what they want)

Take away + pleasant stimulus = dad take away chocolate so that he doesn’t cry in the future