Theme 2- Opposition, Control and Consent 1918-1933

Question 1

What events happened in WW1 that ended in German defeat?

Answer 1

August 1918- Battle of Amiens signaled the beginning of German retreat.
September 1918- Hindenburg line is breached and military leaders tell the kaiser the war is lost but that they didn’t want to be involved in surrender to keep their reputation intact.
-November 1918- mutiny at Kiel and Prince Max of Baden initiates peace negotiations.

Question 2

What was the stab in the back myth?

Answer 2

The idea that the war was lost by a betrayal of disloyal socialists, communists, Jews and weak politicians, not the army or its leaders. The army promoted this idea to avoid the blame for defeat in war.

Question 3

Why was it hard for German people to accept that Germany lost the war?

Answer 3

The media were still confident of victory, even in the autumn of 1918 and it was common knowledge that the German army was still occupying French territory. Popular militarism also meant that the Germans viewed their army as invincible.

Question 4

Who propagated the stab in the back myth?

Answer 4

It was actually said first by an English general but Ludendorff jumped on this phrase and it became a serious message promoted by the German army.

Question 5

What did Germany hope for in the peace treaty?

Answer 5

They hoped for fair treatment as they had set up a democracy in Germany and they thought that a peace treaty would reflect Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen points.

Question 6

When was the Treaty of Versailles signed and whose delegation signed it?

Answer 6

28th June 1919 led by Hermann Muller.

Question 7

What message was the foreign minister who signed the treaty trying to give to the Allies?

Answer 7

He said that other countries should also accept some responsibility for the war and that the Allies alone shouldn’t get to decide the treaty as they were also involved, asking for a neutral inquiry. He also said that the German people might resist against the treaty because of how harsh it was and that he couldn’t promise that any future government would honour it.

Question 8

What were the main terms of the Treaty of Versailles?

Answer 8

• The Rhineland was demilitarised and the German army was reduced to 100,000 men.
• Loss of lands like Alsace-Lorraine and the Polish corridor.
• Loss of empire in Africa and Asia which were transferred to the control of the League of Nations.
• Reparations of 132,000 million gold marks over 30 years.
• Article 231 (war guilt clause where Germany took full responsibility for damages done in the war.

Question 9

What were the main reasons why the Treaty of Versailles was resented by Germans?

Answer 9

• The War Guilt Clause forced them to accept responsibility for the war and they believed that others were equally to blame.
• Didn’t feel like a defeated state, they had signed an armistice not a surrender and yet the treaty was treating them as if they had been defeated.
• Hated that their once proud military nation was being forced to disarm- jeopardising their safety.
• Thought reparations would cause economic ruin.

Question 10

What were the most significant effects of the Treaty of Versailles?

Answer 10

• The Treaty was signed at the same time as the constitution was drafted and the two were strongly linked. The ‘November criminals’ who signed the armistice were the same people who set up the republic and the stab in the back myth was constantly repeated by the right.
• Demobilisation was so resented that it didn’t fully take place. The tight restrictions on the army were unpopular.
• Reparations were blamed for the problems in the German economy (not entirely true) which made them very unpopular.

Question 11

What percentage of Germany’s income would reparations have been if they had been fully paid?

Answer 11

10-12%

Question 12

What is the important thing about the Treaty of Versailles?

Answer 12

It doesn’t matter if it was objectively fair or not, the Germans viewed it as deeply unfair and it poisoned the political atmosphere in Germany which meant political leaders struggled to create a stable peace.

Question 13

When was the Spartacist Uprising and who were the leaders of it?

Answer 13

January 1919 led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg (communists).

Question 14

How serious was the Spartacist Uprising?

Answer 14

Berlin was effectively controlled by communists and Ebert and his government had to flee to Weimar. It also sparked the start of the left wing movement. However, it was put down quickly by the army and Freikorps and the 2 leaders were executed. The KPD then got 0 seats in the 1919 election.

Question 15

When was the Bavarian Republic set up?

Answer 15

March 1919

Question 16

How serious was the Bavarian Republic?

Answer 16

Bavaria was one of the most important states in Germany and it was controlled by communists for 2 months. However, the government was crushed by the Freikorps in May 1919 and a new right wing government was put in charge.

Question 17

When was the Ruhr Uprising?

Answer 17

March 1920

Question 18

How serious was the Ruhr Uprising?

Answer 18

50,000 workers formed a ‘Red Army’ and controlled the Ruhr (an important industrial area) for several weeks. Ultimately, it was crushed by the army and Freikorps but it did have a big support base and showed the reliance of the government on the army and Freikorps.

Question 19

When was the Red Fighting League established?

Answer 19

1924

Question 20

How serious was the Red Fighting League?

Answer 20

It was a paramilitary organisation dominated by the KPD and at its height, had 130,000 members. It was involved in street clashes with the Nazi SA and a celebration of international workers’ day led to 30 deaths in Berlin. It was officially disbanded by the government in 1929 and politically was not united as up to half were not KPD members.

Question 21

When was the Kapp Putsch?

Answer 21

1920

Question 22

How serious was the Kapp Putsch?

Answer 22

Members of the Freikorps took over the Reichstag and other important buildings in Berlin and the army refused to put down the uprising. It showed that the government couldn’t rely on the support of the army against right wing opposition. However, Ebert called a strike to end the Kapp Putsch and the alternative government collapsed after 4 days and many of its leaders fled to Sweden. Only around 5000 men took part.

Question 23

How many members did the Organisation Consul have?

Answer 23

5000

Question 24

What did the Organisation Consul do?

Answer 24

It was a paramilitary terrorist group and murdered over 350 people, including government members- Erzberger in 1921 and Rathenau in 1922. They were forced to disband in a legal order in the mid 1920s.

Question 25

When was the Munich Putsch and who organised it?

Answer 25

1923, organised by Hitler and Ludendorff.

Question 26

How serious was the Munich Putsch?

Answer 26

The SA were able to take control of the army headquarters in Munich and had a force of 3000 men, mostly ex-soldiers. However, it lasted less than 24 hours after the army crushed it. Hitler was sentenced to 5 years in prison for treason (although he only served 9 months).

Question 27

Who was the leader of the SA?

Answer 27

Ernst Röhm

Question 28

How serious was threat posed by the SA?

Answer 28

In 1929, the SA added a motor corps for better mobility. The leader, Ernst Röhm was popular and the SA grew to a peak of 400,000 men by January 1932. In the early 1930s, the Nazis grew from an extremist fringe group to the largest political party in Germany and the SA expanded with it. The Nazis became more popular as unemployment rose in the Great Depression.

Question 29

How did junkers (the rich landowning class mostly in Prussia) undermine the republic?

Answer 29

In 1930 when Brüning tried to settle the unemployed on Junker land the landowners complained and used their influence with the President to call for the dismissal of Brüning.

Question 30

How did industrialists and businessmen undermine the republic?

Answer 30

They attacked the social policies of the republic especially the agreement to accept arbitration in disputes. Hugo Stinnes, a major coal and steel magnate, bought several national newspapers, changing their political views to be more critical of the republic.

Question 31

How did administrators and bureaucrats (institutions) undermine the republic?

Answer 31

The judiciary were lenient towards right wing extremism which allowed them to become more powerful. They undermined the democracy as the legal system was biased. Many government officials were ex-soldiers who were suspicious of the new government.

Question 32

Why were the early threats from the left and right not significant?

Answer 32

The radical left never accounted for more than 15% of electoral support in the polls and most working class support went to the SPD. The radical left lacked mass support and professional organisation. The far right was perceived as thuggish and undisciplined and didn’t have the full support of the army. The far right was also fragmented until the late 1920s when they became absorbed into the Nazi movement.

Question 33

Did the working class generally support the republic?

Answer 33

Yes because they received new legal rights such as an 8 hour working day and formal recognition of trade unions by employers. (Stinnes-Legien Agreement). Their support during the Kapp Putsch was crucial. But there were strikes- 4500 in 1922 although these declined in 1925-29.

Question 34

Did the middle class generally support the republic?

Answer 34

They wanted a quick end to the war so initially yes. However, the democracy threatened their power and status as they lacked political unity, while the working class dominated the Reichstag through the SPD. Hyperinflation meant they lost savings and blamed the democracy. Started to support the Nazis after 1929.

Question 35

Did women generally support the republic?

Answer 35

They had suffered during the war having to work in munitions factories and struggled to feed their families so supported the republic. They supported moderate and religious parties and 60% of ZP support came from women. Generally less willing to support extremist parties.

Question 36

What was the Black Horror campaign?

Answer 36

Said that French black soliders occupying the Ruhr were raping German women and that France were deliberately using ‘racially inferior’ troops to humiliate Germany. It was designed to get France to withdraw and it was widely believed even though there was no evidence for it.

Question 37

What did the 1929 referendum say about support for the republic?

Answer 37

The referendum proposed rejecting the Young Plan and renouncing the war guilt clause. However, the nationalists only got 13.8% of the vote which showed support for the republic and its policies.

Question 38

Give some evidence that the republic was well supported.

Answer 38

Voting percentages showed that pro-Weimar parties had the majority of support in elections- between 50% and 60% for the majority of the period. Anti-Weimar parties only had a majority in the November 1932 election. The most popular party- the SPD had a manifesto openly supporting the republic and there was a rise in support during the Golden Years.

Question 39

Give some evidence that the republic was not well supported.

Answer 39

Young people disliked the republic and only 8% of SPD membership were under 25 in 1930. Many right wing people continued to use the imperial flag showing a rejection of the new government. Industrialists, army generals and aristocracy resented the loss of influence and few people actively tried to win support for the republic.

Question 40

Why did support for Weimar weaken 1928 onwards?

Answer 40

Industrialists were becoming increasingly unwilling to honour agreements they made with workers in 1918-19, the middle class resented the rising costs and increased taxation of a welfare state and army leaders disliked the pacifism of the SPD and thought it would prevent Germany from rearming.

Question 41

How were compromises used by Weimar to control and win over the people?

Answer 41

There were generous welfare programs for example a national unemployment insurance program introduced in 1927. Stinnes-Legien agreements won the support of the working class and the Ebert-Groener Pact in 1918 ensured that the army would support the new republic in exchange for independence.

Question 42

How was Article 48 (emergency powers) used by Weimar to control and win over the people?

Answer 42

They were used to help suppress the Kapp Putsch in 1920, the Munich Putsch in 1923, in the hyperinflationary crisis in 1923 and in banning political uniforms in 1930. These all helped to suppress opposition and to try and overcome the economic crisis which would help create stability in the republic.

Question 43

How was the banning of extremist parties used by Weimar to control and win over the people?

Answer 43

The NSDAP was banned after the Munich Putsch 1923, the Red Fighting League was banned in 1929 and the SA was banned in April 1932. This helped create stability as the government was able to get rid of opposition when it started to pose a threat to them. Less effective than other methods of control though, especially as the ban on the SA was lifted in June 1932.

Question 44

How was the use of force by the army and Freikorps used by Weimar to control and win over the people?

Answer 44

They were used to help defeat the Spartacist Uprising in 1919, the army defeated the Munich Putsch in 1923 in less than 24 hours and in the suppression of the Ruhr Uprising in 1920. This was generally effective in controlling opposition, particularly from the extreme left. The army and Freikorps didn’t help in the Kapp Putsch but the army did put down the Munich Putsch so they sometimes helped against the extreme right.