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Biol 371 > Theme 1 > Flashcards

Theme 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the eight elements of eukaryotes?

A

Have a mitochondria
Have sexual reproduction
Have cytoskeleton
Have primary genome of multiple linear chromosomes-
Have 80s ribosomes
Endomembrane system of Eukaryotes
Have plastids
Can be multicellular

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2
Q

Describe the eukaryotes mitochondria (energy, structure, and dna)

A

-Mitochondria has a membrane envelope, important as it compartmentalizes mitochondria- nothing else can get in and disturb its processes, and is evidence that mitochondria was engulfed.
-Mitochondria produces atp (energy) through oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondria have their own dna. Mitochondria therefore can reproduce on their own.

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3
Q

How do prokaryotes get ATP without a mitochondria?

A

prokaryotes entire cell does the function of mitochondria by producing ATP on their surface.

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4
Q

Describe the two ways eukaryotes do sexual reproduction and the advantage of it?

A

for diversifying dna through gamete fusion- if all dna was same in a pop they would all have the same response to environment.
Sexual reproduction in us is vertical, takes haploids and creates diploid, haploid gametes to create diploid individual. Is vertical transmission
There can also be horizontal transmission- gene transfer.
The genetic diversity eukaryotes get is huge, because haploid cells are different and combine with other haploid cells which results in a gene mix.

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5
Q

How do prokaryotes reproduce?

A

binary fission

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6
Q

Describe benefits of eukaryotes cytoskeleton?

A

Promotes agility, eukaryotes can move faster than prokaryotes due to this. Is involved in protein transport, this is because eukaryote is large so it needs transport systems.

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7
Q

Name the three elements of structure in eukaryotic cytoskeleton?

A

Microtubules
Microfilaments
intermediate filaments

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8
Q

Describe microtubules?

A

have positive (end that grows more rapidly) and negative end, composed of a tubulin dimers and b tubulin dimers.
- inside of tubule is 15 nm long, outside of tubule is 25 nm long. Are composed of 13 filaments (dimers strugn together) side by side in a molecule.
- Can change their length by popping off tubulin diamers of their ends.
-Spindles- stuff that pulls genes apart in mitosis, are made from these.

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9
Q

Describe microtubules?

A

have positive (end that grows more rapidly) and negative end, composed of a tubulin dimers and b tubulin dimers.
- inside of tubule is 15 nm long, outside of tubule is 25 nm long. Are composed of 13 filaments (dimers strugn together) side by side in a molecule.
- Can change their length by popping off tubulin diamers of their ends.
-Spindles- stuff that pulls genes apart in mitosis, are made from these.

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10
Q

Describe microfilaments?

A

smallest element of structure around 5-7 nm.
- Are composed of actin subunits that are arranged in a helical arrangement, actin subunits are monomers, microfilaments are really important in movement due to their polarity - have both a positive and negative end. Because of their polarity they can move things in the cell.

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11
Q

Describe intermediate filaments?

A

Are medium element (8-12nm), found in animals, made from multiple intermediate filament proteins twisted together.

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12
Q

Describe primary genome of multiple linear chromosomes

A

Eukaryotes have genome ordered into linear pairs of which half are copied, allows them to copy specific segments at a time

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13
Q

How do prokaryotes store DNA?

A

Prokaryotes have DNA in a big loop, as well as plasmids in the nucleiod in the prokaryotes.

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14
Q

Describe eukaryotes 80s ribosomes compared to prokaryotes?

A

eukaryotic ribosomes are bigger and contain more stuff- theres 4 RNA types and more than 80 proteins.

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15
Q

Describe prokaryote ribosomes?

A

Prokaryote ribosomes are 70s.

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16
Q

Describe endomembrane system of eukaryotes (what does it do for dna)?

A

Eukaryotes have an endomembrane system, for example they have a nucleus (organelle) which holds eukaryote’s DNA, this protects DNA and allows it to be compartmentalized from other processes in cell.

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17
Q

Describe endomembranes function of eukaryotes?

A

-Endomembrane Important
-Allow us to engulf large particles
-Increases surface area, more you have the more you can make/consume, every process in cell depends on this.
-Allows you to partition your processes, can synthesize fats in one area, store sugar in another area. The more cells have to do the more compartmentalized the cell becomes.

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18
Q

Describe plastids in eukaryote (plant)

A

these plastids have derived organelles called chloroplasts.
- Are membrane bound
- Have stroma and thylakoids
-Are involved in photosynthesis and starch storage, only in plants in algae. Not in animals.
- Plastids have their own DNA. Reproduce on their own, this dna is only expressed in the chloroplast (type of plastid).
- Plant cells have both mitochondria and chloroplasts.
- Choloroplasts allow plant to trap energy thats in light

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19
Q

Are eukaryotes multi or unicellular? Prokaryotes?

A

Eukaryotes can be multicellular (animal, fungi, plants) or unicellular, prokaryotes are unicellular.

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20
Q

What are the eukaryotic cell organelles (main)

A

Nucleus
Mitochondria
-Plasma Membrane
-Golgi Apparatus
-Cytoskeleton
-Endoplasmic reticulum
Animals have no Plastids
Cell wall (Plants)
Chloroplast (Plants)

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21
Q

What does basal vs derived mean?

A

Organisms can be basal or derived- basal refers to clades that developed first, derived refers to their sister taxa that came off of them later.

22
Q

Name all multicellular organisms

A

include green algae, red algae, brown algae (kelp), land plants, animals, and fungi

23
Q

In what group of organisms did multicellularity evolve twice?

A

Fungi evolved multicellularity 2x in two different lineages.

24
Q

What is the proof for mitochondria and plastids origins?

A

Reproduce by fission- not mitosis
Plastids came from cyanobacteria, and went through similar symbiosis mitochondria did.
Mitochondria and plastids differ from other organelles in eukaryotic cells as they have their own circular DNA and functions.
Can segregate mitochondria and chloroplasts from eukaryotic cell, we will see that their dna is more similar to prokaryotes.
Alpha protero bacterium shares common ancestor with mitochondria, is similar to bacteria that causes typhus- is a prokaryote.
Differentiate in size, each mitochondria and chloroplast has 70s ribosomes transcribing their DNA.
There are proteins in organelle membranes in plastid and mitochondria, these proteins are only present in prokaryotes.
Have double membrane, meaning they were engulfed with their own membrane, and eukaryotes formed another membrane around it.

25
Q

Which cam first plant or animals cells? How do you know?

A

Mitochondria was adapted first to create animal cells, then chloroplast was adpated to creat plant cells.

26
Q

What type of bacteria gave rise to mitochondria?

A

aerobic bacteria

27
Q

When was mitochondria developed?

A

1.5 BYA

28
Q

What type of bacteria gave rise to chloroplasts?

A

photosynthetic bacteria

29
Q

What’s the great oxygenation event?

A

is the event where Free oxygen begins to accumulate in atmosphere, probably of biological origin from cyanobacteria, about 2.5 billion years ago, with a huge increase 850 million years ago.

30
Q

Whats the evidence for the great oxygenation event?

A

Banded Iron Formations abundant between 2.5 and 1.8 billion years ago, decline after.
Major changes in number of rock types formed after this event: hydrated and oxidized minerals

31
Q

why did it take so long for oxygen to start accumulating?

A

Why’d it take so long for oxygen to start accumulating? free oxygen reacted with ocean chemistry immediately, not released into atmosphere - long time to accumulate sufficient gas - mass rusting
since Cambrian oxygen has been between 15-30% of atmosphere, high of 35% in Carboniferous
There was a lot of iron present at this time that oxygen reacted with iron in water to create rust, got used up and that is why there was big delay in getting oxygen.

32
Q

Cyanobacteria starts pumping out oxygen around 2500, however complex life comes very very later, why

A

There was a lot of iron present at this time that oxygen reacted with iron in water to create rust, got used up and that is why there was big delay in getting oxygen.
Called great oxygenation event and great rusting.
Get a lot of eukaryotic cells as oxygen becomes prevalent in atmosphere, aerobic bacteria was not common until oxygen levels increased in atmosphere,
we get diversification of soft bodied animals and then get Cambrian explosions much later.
Cant evolve mitochondria in an environment without oxygen.

33
Q

What are the three theories for the origin of multicellulairty?

A

Symbiotic theory
Syncytial theory-
colonial hypothesis

34
Q

Describe Symbiotic theory and issue with it

A

is that a bunch of different cells attached together and worked together in symbiosis.
-Problem with this: they all have different genomes! How did they get the same one?

35
Q

Describe Syncytial theory and issue with it

A

syncytial- one mass with multiple nuclei- ex: placenta.
-Theory here is we have single cell with single nucleus and then nucelous start to copy without dividing the cell. Get a bigger cell with lots of nuclei. Eventually the big mass splits so each cell has one nucelous. Each nucelues will then assign itself a role and still have the same genome, but begin to specialize.
These cells are called Coenocytic cells.
-Problem with this theory is there is not much evidence for it.

36
Q

Describe colonial hypothesis and issue with it

A

we have many cells that have the same genome as they’re all from one species and they come together to form a colony. They then slowly take different functions by expressing parts of genomes. Ex of colonial organisms: corals
-Animal cells can exchange info easy next to one another as there’s no cell wall, but with plants you must have different junctions which allow them to communicate with each other. So problem there.

37
Q

What are selective advantages of multicellularity?

A

Division of labour and economy of scale
Increased size
Complexity

38
Q

Describe advantage of Division of labour and economy of scale

A
  • is not efficient when all cells have to do everything, also if your big It doesn’t work: need cells that can move products through organisms as diffusion alone is not sufficient, soem cells won’t get products. Need circulatory systems.
  • Insects don’t have oxygen in circulatory systems- that’s why their so small
39
Q

Describe adavantage of increased size

A

Increased size also allows you to avoid predation, also means you can eat larger things.
Can exploit new environments
Have more room for storage (nutrients)
Have a protect dinternal environment
Develop new metabolic functions
Have enhanced motility
Can share info with other cells
Get increased traction in currents/wind

40
Q

Describe advantage of complexity

A

Predator/prey interactions can happen as well as host/parasite ones
Has more of an opportunity for diversity in form/function as well as niches

41
Q

Whats a real life example of avoiding predation?

A

Algae can expel it’s daughter cells, if you raise algae in presence of daphnia they start retaining their daughter cells, and this reduces the amount of food daphnia can get. Presence of daphnia makes these algae retain very large sizes to avoid predation.

42
Q

What are challenges of being large and muticellular?

A

As an organism gets larger surface area decreases in comparison to volume. This limits the size of prokaryotes as their atp is made on the surface of their cell, and can’t get bigger as they wouldn’t produce enough atp to match their volume.
Eukaryotes add SA with endomembrane system which allows them to increase energy production, however they still need to evolve solution to allow for exchange and rapid transport of energy.

43
Q

Do eukaryotes express entire genome in cell, id the do/don’t why?

A

Eukaryotes don’t express their entire genome in the cell (doesn’t make all dna create proteins), this allows cell to perform exclusive functions to DNA. Ex: Can unwind DNA and not replicate it.

44
Q

Describe what nucleus organelle does?

A

Nucleus
- Protects DNA prom process going on in cell, stops DNA from mixing into other portions of cell, allows gene expression to happen in a localized way.

45
Q

Describe what mitochondria organelle does?

A
  • Mitochondria
    - Provides energy
46
Q

Describe what plasma membrane organelle does?

A

-Plasma Membrane
- Controls what comes in and out of cells- important because it helps remove waste, toxic substances, and provides concentration gradient which allows you to regulate water and elements in the cell.

47
Q

Describe what golgi apparatus organelle does?

A

Golgi Apparatus
- Helps move things around the cell

48
Q

Describe what cytoskeleton organelle does?

A

Cytoskeleton
- Promotes agility, eukaryotes can move faster than prokaryotes due to this. Is involved in protein transport, this is because eukaryote is large so it needs transport systems.

49
Q

Describe what ER organelle does?

A

-Endoplasmic reticulum
- Helps Cell compartmentalizes the reactions through having an organelle that ribosomes attach too, also gives surface area for reactions to take place.
When you get bigger less space to do rxns this helps you do them.
Is where synthesis, modification, and transport of proteins happens, as well as membrane synthesis.

50
Q

Describe what cell wall organelle does?

A

Cell wall (Plants)
Provides structural support, rigidity, and protective functions.

51
Q

Describe what chloroplast organelle does?

A

Chloroplast (Plants)
Provides starch storage, allows you to energy plant creates from light.

Biol 371 (7 decks)

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