The Water cycle EQ3

Question 1

How does water stress occur?

Answer 1

Only 50% of water is used but due to the population boom in areas where water is limited (supply and demand) means people face severe water shortage.

Question 2

What is water stress?

Answer 2

The country’s water consumption exceeds 10% of its renewable freshwater supply, including difficulties in obtaining new quantities of water and poor water quality.

• below 1,700m3 per person

Question 3

What is water insecurity?

Answer 3

Water insecurity is the lack of adequate and safe water for a healthy and productive life.

Question 4

What is water scarcity?

Answer 4

The imbalance between demand and supply.

• below 1000m3 per person

Question 5

What is physical scarcity?

Answer 5

Insufficient water to meet demand - water deficit.

Question 6

What is economic scarcity?

Answer 6

People can’t afford water, even when is available.

Question 7

Why has the demand grown?

Answer 7

• Population growth
• Rising standards of living - meat-rich diets and white goods
• Fracking huge demand for water
• Irrigated farming (Murray Darling basin
• Economic growth

Question 8

Why have the water supplies started to dwindle?

Answer 8

• over-abstraction of groundwater aquifers
• Irrigation

Question 9

What are the 3 water pressure points?

Answer 9

• Diminishing supply
• Rising demands
• Competing demands from users

Question 10

Why is there a growing mismatch between water supply and demand?

Answer 10

Generally, countries with a large area or small population are more able to balance water supply and demand, such as Russia and Canada. There is a growing mismatch between water supply and demand because the amount of excess freshwater is changing in some places due to dry conditions, contamination and over-abstraction. At the same time water demand is increasing due to population growth (domestic use), increasing urbanisation (construction use) economic development (industrial use) and more intensive farming (irrigation).

The most highly stressed countries are in the Middle East. This is one of the world’s most insecure regions. Countries bear make heavy use of groundwater and desolate native seawater face major challenges. Countries such as the USA, China and India also face insecurities. But specific areas such as the Southwest USA could see water stress increase by 40 to 70%.

Question 11

What are the patterns of water supply?

Answer 11

• Much of sub-Saharan Africa suffers from economic scarcity, especially property but also lacks infrastructure so it cant invest in water management schemes.
• Every 90 seconds a child dies from a waterborne disease. 0.8 million people die from diarrhoea as a result of dirty water each year; 25% of people drink water contaminated with faeces.
• 12% of the world’s population consumes 85% of its water.
• 1.8 billion people lack clean drinking water, 2.4 billion lack adequate sanitation, and 0.7 billion face water shortages.
• Half of the world’s rivers and lakes are badly polluted and half of the rivers no longer flow all year.
• Food supplies are also threatened as water shortages increase.
• Severe water scarcity in northern China, leading to the south-north transfer scheme.
• Egypt imports >50% of its food because of physical scarcity.

Question 12

What are the physical causes of water insecurity?

Answer 12

• Climate variability
• Saltwater encroachment
• Geology

Question 13

What are the human causes of water insecurity?

Answer 13

• Population and demand
• Contamination of water by agricultural, industrial and domestic pollution
• Over-abstraction

Question 14

How does climate variability cause water insecurity?

Answer 14

Earth has different climatic zones, some of which are humid and others arid. Sometimes and have a wet and dry season. Global warming is changing the water budget within these climatic zones – effective precipitation may decrease, or warmer water may host more harmful bacteria. The rate of evaporation or evapotranspiration can also be an indicator of how much fresh water is available. Climatic events like flooding or droughts directly impact the availability of freshwater. Natural disasters can also influence water security, for example, tsunamis. With the damaging effects of climate change, this will only worsen.

Question 15

How does salt water encroachment cause water insecurity?

Answer 15

Saltwater encroachment is the localised abstraction of groundwater pumping from freshwater wells that lower the water table of coastal areas and allows the water to move into salt and aquifers. Thermal expansion of the sea, along with the melting ice sheets and glaciers are enabling some water to intrude. It’s a threat to health, food security and livelihoods. Saltwater from oceans contaminates the freshwater supplies on land. With climate change resulting in sea level rise, this will also get worse.

e.g California. Orange County, a wealthy country near Los Angeles, built a facility in 1976 that injects treated wastewater into the aquifer, the former freshwater barrier against the ocean.

Question 16

How does geology cause water insecurity?

Answer 16

Rock types can affect the availability of freshwater; rocks can be permeable (which means water can flow through them). Water can flow through these rocks and create aquifers under the ground, where the water can accumulate. This water can either be extracted manually, or it may find its way into other natural water sources.

Question 17

How do population and demand cause water insecurity?

Answer 17

Population rise has led to an increased demand for water. In many parts of the world, with the rise of the middle class and income booms, living standards have improved, which has impacted water consumption patterns. By 2050 the world’s population is predicted to have grown to 9.7 billion by 2050. With half the world’s population living in urban areas due to increasing urbanisation, it is causing pressure on local areas to provide freshwater, especially in drought-prone areas.

Question 18

How does contamination of water by agricultural, industrial and domestic pollution cause water insecurity?

Answer 18

Current water usage during crop production is affecting river flow rates, depleting aquifers and degrading wildlife habitats. Agricultural pollution from pesticides and fertilisers also influences water quality. Those involved in industrial processes, such as Transnational Corporations (TNCs), have often been criticised for their environmental impacts. Coca-cola was forced to shut down a $16m factory in India due to the overuse of water supplies that affected the local population’s access to water.

Chemicals and other wastes for example pesticides made into water sources, polluting and leading to an increase in organisms that are harmful to human health.

Question 19

How does over- abstraction cause water insecurity?

Answer 19

Water can collect in aquifers as it runs through permeable rocks. This water can be abstracted for human use through infrastructure such as wells. However, with over-abstraction, the water supply can run out, especially when over-abstraction is higher than water replacement. This causes water deficits.

e.g North China plain by farming and urban uses.

Question 20

What are the reasons that finite water resources face pressures?

Answer 20

• Increasing population: the world population is growing by about 80 million per year, and is predicted to reach 9.1bn in 2050. But the demand for water is rising twice as fast. The increasing organisation is causing local pressure on the availability of freshwater, especially in drought-prone areas. More than half of the world’s population now lives in urban areas, and urban populations are projected to increase by 6.3bn by 2050.
• Improving living standards: rising incomes of living standards of a growing middle class in developing and emerging economies has led to a sharp increase in water, which can be unsustainable. Changing consumption patterns, such as increasing meat consumption, and building larger homes in increased use of cars, appliances and energy-consuming devices, involves increased water consumption in both production and use.
• Industrialisation: The OECD predicted that global water demand for manufacturing would increase by 400% from 2000 to 2050 – far more than any other sector. Most of the increase will be in emerging economies in developing countries, with indications for both water supply and quality. If water use is not regulated, pollution could increase dramatically.
• Agriculture: Agriculture is by far the largest user of water consuming about 70%. By 2050, global agriculture needs to produce 60% more food to meet the demands of the growing population. But current increases in agriculture demand freshwater unsustainable. This is leading to the degradation of wildlife habitats and increased pesticide and fertiliser pollution as a sleep into groundwater.

Question 21

What are the consequences of water insecurity?

Answer 21

• Development
• Water conflict
• Migration

Question 22

How does water insecurity cause a lack of development?

Answer 22

• Access to water can be directly related to levels of development, most specifically, human development. Human development essentially describes the improvement of the well-being of a population. Access to clean water can directly contribute to the cycle of poverty; without clean water, people are more likely to get sick and therefore become unable to work. This subsequently affects income and poverty levels.
• Unsafe and unclean water can harbour diseases causing severe illness or even death, such as cholera, typhoid, and even hepatitis, therefore negatively impacting the health of a population. Education is also affected by water insecurity. Children often spend much of their time collecting water or suffering from water disease-related sickness rather than attending school.

Question 23

How does water insecurity cause water conflict?

Answer 23

Water insecurity can cause conflict between nations. These conflicts can be caused by disputes over access to or ownership of water sources. Building infrastructure, such as dams, can also be a cause for conflict. Conflict can also arise when populations are unhappy with water laws or when corrupt nations poorly manage water resources. The price of clean water has increased in certain regions and may increase globally in the future, meaning that developing countries will struggle to afford clean water and may increase competition.

Question 24

How does water insecurity lead to migration?

Answer 24

If there is a decrease in access to water, or the consequential effects on food access, food prices, and agricultural difficulties, people are more likely to leave their place of residence in search of better water security.

Question 25

What causes the global pattern of physical water scarcity and economic scarcity?

Answer 25

Almost 20% of the world’s population lives in areas where water is physically scarce. Areas with low rainfall and high temperatures can suffer from physical water scarcity. In the future, climate change will affect the natural water balance and availability of us even more. Changes in patterns and frequency of rainfall affect the recharging of water stores. Increases in temperature will increase evaporation and transpiration rate. Human activities including land use changes, soil degradation, withdrawals for agriculture and industry and water contamination will also have an impact on the physical availability of water resources. Often people can’t afford processed water and in many parts of the world predominantly in Africa economic water scarcity exists.

Question 26

Why does the price of water vary globally?

Answer 26

The price of water varies across the world, as well as the proportion of the local’s income. This is dependent on a variety of factors including access to water but also the effectiveness of the infrastructure. Back in the 1980s the World Bank and the IMF gave loans that required any developing countries to privatise water systems in the hope that competition would reduce costs. To governments, passing the responsibility for modernising the ageing water infrastructure over to private companies seems like a good idea. Yet consumers have had to pay significantly higher charges for their water supplies. Government policies mean Denmark is the world’s most expensive water its government aims to cut water consumption through high prices. The price went from 2-7 euros per cubic metre and also increased public awareness of saving water and authorities imposed additional penalties. Other factors include demand, and lack of water supply.

Question 27

What is the water poverty index?

Answer 27

The Water Poverty Index was developed in 2002 to help the UN reach the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs). It determines the quality, quantity and accessibility of water. It considers five principles:

1. Resources: The physical availability of surface and ground water and its quality.
2. Access: The accessibility of safe water for human use, including domestic, industrial and agricultural use.
3. Capacity: The effectiveness of water management to ensure affordability.
4. Use: The use of water for different purposes, including domestic, industrial and agricultural use.
5. Environment: water management strategies to ensure ecological sustainability.

Each of these measures is scored out of 20 to give a maximum possible score of 100; poverty decreases as the score increases.

Question 28

What is the importance of water supply for economic development?

Answer 28

Water is essential for producing many goods and services – including food, energy and manufacturing. Industrialisation drives economic development by increasing output, jobs and then comes. As population growth and the economy developed, the demand for water increases rapidly. In 2015, the UN’s World Water development report predicted a 55% increase in the demand for water, based on existing trends.

Question 29

What is the importance of water supply for human well-being?

Answer 29

• Health (clean water for drinking avoids disease, increases life expectancy)
• Cleanliness (Improves social dignity)
• Food (watering crops and animals provides more food to eat, avoiding malnutrition)
• Ecosystems (Maintain environmental health so services and resources available)
• Human rights (disadvantaged groups require safe drinking water, sanitation)

Question 30

What are the environmental and economic problems resulting from inadequate water?

Answer 30

• Manufacturing can’t increase production if there are shortages of water.
• An unsustainable economy can lead to water costs creating conflict.
• Degraded ecosystems are less productive, have disrupted food webs, and have higher concentrations of salts and contaminants.
  -Irrigation requires vast amounts of water so if there isn’t enough water supply, then crops will die.

Question 31

What are the potential conflicts that occur over local and transboundary water sources?

Answer 31

Freshwater is an essential resource. In some countries, water resources a shared because of a lake, a river or groundwaters crossing political boundaries. For example, in the Southwest USA, there is a longtime internal tension over the sharing of the Colorado rivers water, especially as there is population growth and a dry climate due to climate change. Environmental concerns have arisen due to water shortages. International tensions arise when major rivers flow through several countries or large aquifers extend under international boundaries. The UN estimates that 40% of the world’s population depends on trans-boundary water supplies including 2 billion people relying on transboundary groundwater supplies.

Question 32

What are the two examples of water conflicts?

Answer 32

• The Colorado River
• The Nile river basin

Question 33

What are the conflicts in the Nile river basin?

Answer 33

It’s the longest river in the world so it flows through several countries. It’s in the international transboundary River, whose water resources are shared by 11 countries. The Nile has two major territories, the walls of the White Nile and the Blue Nile, which meet near Sudan. The river is important because it provides water for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes. The disagreements about the Nile include that it favoured the downstream state of Sudan and Egypt, meaning people in the Upstream struggled. The agreement didn’t resolve the broader contentions issues of water sharing. The construction of the ground Ethiopian renaissance Dam met with angry responses from Egypt as it would threaten their livelihoods.

Question 34

What are the conflicts in the Colorado river?

Answer 34

California depended on the water from the Colorado River for most of the 20th century. Throughout the century, numerous treaties and agreements were needed to allocate fair shares of the Colorado River to the surrounding 7 US states and Mexico. There is no pressure on the Colorado River. Mexico takes 10% of the total flow. The state in the lower base takes 50% of a basin and falls short by 10%. California takes 20% more than its allocation. Increasingly water restrictions are now occurring, which can create conflicts between water providers and users.

Question 35

Who are the players involved in the Colorado river?

Answer 35

The United Nations: Its economic commission for Europe Water Convention aims to protect and ensure that water quantity, quality and sustainable use of transboundary water resources by helping with the corporation and resolving issues.

The EU: water framework directive and hydropower, agreed in Berlin in 2000, set targets to restore rivers, lakes, canals and coastal waters to good condition.

National government agencies: e.g. The UK’s environment agency, which checks compliance with EU frameworks although this may change post-Brexit.

Question 36

What are the agreements to reduce water conflicts?

Answer 36

A combination of climate change, population growth, economic development and lifestyle changes have made the old Colorado agreement obsolete so:

• The 2007 agreement was reached. Instead of sharing Colorado’s River, the seven states divided up the shortages. The amount of water available determines supplies for each state. California has reduced the number of extracts by 20% because of this.
• In 2012 an agreement called Minute 139 was signed between the USA and Mexico. Gives Mexico the right to store some of its Colorado River water in Lake Mead. In return, water providers in the Colorado River basin will be able to purchase water conserved by improving Mexico’s canals and storage infrastructure.

Question 37

Why is the Gilgel Gibe 111 dam controversial?

Why is the dam so important?

What are the arguments in favour of the dam?

Answer 37

• Many ethnic groups live in hunger so this reinforces their struggle. Water management creates violent conflict.
• Designed to turn the country into the powerhouse of Africa and fuel economic growth.
• The floods are planned for massive cotton and sugarcane plantations in the lower Orno valley, which will impove livelihoods of downstream population.

Question 38

What are the 2 main ways of managing water supplies?

Answer 38

• Hard engineering
• Sustainable water schemes

Question 39

What are the main aims of sustainable water management?

Answer 39

• Minimise wastage and pollution of water resources.
• Ensure that there is access to safe water for all people at an affordable price.
• Take into account the views of all water users.
• Guarantee an equitable distribution of water within and between countries.

Question 40

What was the South-North water transfer project and the pros and cons?

Answer 40

The Beijing region has 35% of China’s population and 40% of its arable land – but only 7% of its water. The three roots will take water from the Yangtze to northern China, a western route to the Yellow River and an eastern route via a series of lakes and a century.

This project will reduce the risk of water shortages in Beijing and boost economic development. It will reduce the abstraction of groundwater. However, it costs US$70bn. It was submerged in 370 km² of land. 345,000 people have to relocate. The water transfer does not address the water shortages in the north: pollution and inefficient agricultural, industrial and urban use.

Question 41

What was the 3 Gorges dam and the pros and cons?

Answer 41

Was designed to control flooding on the Yangtze, improve water supplies by regulating river flow as well as generating HEP and making the river negotiable. It provides lots of energy through ATP which can power many homes which means it saves 31 million tonnes of using coal a year. However, 632 km² of Land has to be flooded. 1.3 million people have been relocated from 1500 villages and towns. Waste and sewage enter from upstream and the project has been very expensive as well as the reservoir’s water quality is low. It enables the plus water to build up and be diverted to northern China via the north – South water transfer project. The project was extremely expensive at US$22.5bn.

Question 42

What was Israel’s desalination project and the pros and cons?

Answer 42

Desalination plants provide a reliable and predictable supply of water. Aims to provide 70% of Israel’s domestic water supplies by 2020. It produces up to 600 tons of potable water. However, each plant requires its own power station which has its carbon emissions. It provides vast amounts of salt, containing anti-scaling that harms ecosystems. Overall, it contributes to global warming instead of mitigating it.

Question 43

What is sustainable management in Singapore including the pros and cons?

Answer 43

Singapore is a small country and its 5.4 million people are urban. Singapore’s neighbour, Malaysia, has supplied 80% of its water, but by 2010 this volume has halved. Per capita, water consumption fell from 165L today in 2000 to 150, in 2015, through metering the water supply and educating the public. Leakages have been cut by 5%. Water prices have risen. Subsidies protect the poorest citizens from expensive water. The whole of Singapore is a water harvesting catchment. Diversified supplies include local catchment water, recycled water and desalinated water. NEWater is high grade recycled water produced from used water that is treated add further purified using advanced membrane technologies and ultraviolet disinfection, making it ultra clean.

Question 44

What is smart irrigation and where does it happen including the pros and cons?

Answer 44

Israel’s climate, natural geography and politics had forced it to officially manage its limited water supplies. The National water carrier was developed to transfer water from the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel to the highly populated centre of the country and the dry south. Israel’s current water management strategies include managing limited supplies through:

• Using smart irrigation, where a drip system allows water to drip slowly into plant roots to a system of valves and pipes which produces wastage and evaporation.
• Recycling sewage water for agricultural use.
• Reducing agricultural consumption and importing water in food as virtual water.
• Pink sea water from the Red Sea and the Mediterranean to new inland desalination plants.

Question 45

What is rainwater harvesting as well as the pros and cons?

Answer 45

• In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia pioneered the use of circular irrigation systems to grow enough wheat to feed itself and its neighbours, using water from its own aquifers. Water levels within its aquifers fell sharply. Now, the government imports grain and wheat farms have been abandoned to reduce the demand for aquifers supplying irrigation water. This is an advantage as it helps the growth of crops and helps meet the demands for food supplies.
• Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rain, rather than allowing it to run off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit, aquifer, or reservoir with percolation so that it seeps down and restores the groundwater.

Question 46

What is the rainwater harvesting in Uganda?

Answer 46

Water aid is an NGO that raises funds to improve access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene for some of the worlds poorest people. In Uganda, where 3000 people lack access to safe water, local builders have been trained in the construction of rainwater harvesting jars which are made from locally sourced materials and have a capacity of 1,500 litres. They usually collect rainwater from roofs and store water during drier periods. The jars have a long life and once constructed, they can provide a stable water source for years.

Question 47

What is the IWRM?

Answer 47

IWRM (Integrated Water Resources Management) was first advocated in the late 1990s. It emphasises the river basin as a logical geographical unit for the management of water resources. It is based on achieving close cooperation between basin users and players. The river basin is treated holistically in order to ensure three things:

• The environmental quality of the rivers and catchment
• That water is used with maximum efficiency
• Equitable distribution of water among users

Experience has shown that IWRM works well at a community level, but not so well in larger river basins, especially if an international boundary is involved, as is the case with the Colorado River and the Nile.

Question 48

What are the Berlin Rules on water resources?

Answer 48

Were approved by the international Law Association in 2004. The rules outline international law relating to freshwater resources, whether within a nation or crossing international boundaries and is part of the IWRM.

1. Participatory water management- the public have the right to be involved with decision making.
2. Sustainability- economic, social and environmental needs to be met, now and in the future.
3. Equitable utilisation of shared water resources- all groups and communities to receive a fair share.
4. Equitable participation- all countries or players to have equal status.

Question 49

What are water sharing treaties and frameworks?

Answer 49

In spite of the potential for conflicts over shared waters, particularly where there is ‘greedy’ upstream behaviour, international cooperation is the rule rather than the exception. Over the last 60 years, military conflict has occurred only in a handful of drainage basin disagreements. There has been a surprising amount of international cooperation, even between traditional enemies, as for example between India and Pakistan who share the Indus.

Question 50

What are examples of international agreements?

Answer 50

• The Helsinki Rules, with their ‘equitable use’ and ‘equitable shares’ concepts
• The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Water Convention promotes the joint management and conservation of shared freshwater ecosystems
• The UN-Water Courses Convention offers guidelines for the protection and use of transboundary rivers
• The EU Water Framework Directive (2000), committing all members to ensure the ‘status’ of their water bodies, including their marine waters up to one nautical mile from shore

Question 51

How can tensions and conflicts over water reduce?

Answer 51

The players involved in tensions and conflicts over water can each play a part in reducing the conflict risk. At a global scale, the UN sets the rules which governments are required to observe. Non-governmental organisations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature, have a vital role to play in the ‘neutral’ monitoring of potential conflict situations. TNC have important responsibilities here. Locally, a range of players may be involved, from planners and environmentalists to water companies and water users. Each has a responsibility to minimise conflict and maximise cooperation.