The USA: Civil Rights Flashcards
1
Q
What treatments did black Americans face?
A
- racial segregation
- discrimination
- Jim Crow Laws enforced segregation in public parks, cinemas, restaurants, schools, universities, and on public transport
2
Q
What were attitudes like in ‘The Deep South’?
A
- states in the USA’s south-east with a history of slavery
- formed the Confederacy during the Civil war.
- held very traditional and conservative views
3
Q
Why do many laws vary between states?
A
The US has a federal system of government. This means that while the constitution gives federal government (president, Houses of Congress and the Supreme Court) some powers, it also gives states the right to pass many of their own laws.
4
Q
What was the KKK?
A
-a group that persecuted Jews, Catholics, communists, and anyone who was not white, especially African Americans. They put burning crosses in front of houses, blew up homes, and murdered people. Many policemen and judges in the South were members or sympathetic to the organisation.
5
Q
How many black Americans could vote in the South?
A
Before the war 3% could vote, while in 1956 about 20% were registered to vote
6
Q
Why were so few black Americans registered to vote?
A
white people could stop black people from voting using a variety of official and unofficial methods:
- employers threatening to sack black employees
- white gangs gathered outside registration and voting places
- black campaigners and the lawyers and activists who went to court to defend the right to vote frequently faces beatings or murder
- unfair voting registration tests, including literacy tests that would be biased towards white people
7
Q
What factors contributed to the growth of the civil rights movement in the 1950’s?
A
- better education for black people, especially in the North, lead to more black professionals.
- migration meant that many poor black people moved North and liberal whites moved South
- Southern towns grew, giving black people new job opportunities in industry
- Cold War made the US gov. sensitive to international criticism
- in WW2 many white people worked with black people and black Americans saw integration abroad
- television brought events into the living room - racism could not be ignored across the USA
8
Q
What nationwide civil rights organisations were there in the 1950’s?
A
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
9
Q
What groups campaigned for rights in the South?
A
- local groups, often church based - often had more success in the South
- some local groups did not oppose segregation but wanted equal standards. These groups were important in helping develop tactics of non-violent direct action
10
Q
How did the NAACP campaign for civil rights?
A
Focused on campaigning through the courts
11
Q
What was Plessy v. Ferguson?
A
a decision by the US supreme court in 1896 that declared segregation was allowed under the constitution, as it was ‘separate but equal’ . This allowed for Jim Crow laws
12
Q
How did CORE campaign against segregation?
A
CORE campaigns used non-violent direct action protests such as boycotts, pickets and sit-ins of segregated places (eg. lunch counters, public transport)
13
Q
How did church organisation campaign for civil rights?
A
Black American churches were important centres of most black communities in the South. Black clergymen were often community leaders and organisers, and were involved in the civil rights movement because:
- most were paid by the church so would not lose their jobs if they spoke out against white racism
- they were educated and good public speakers
- they were good negotiators
- they had their own network of contacts in the black community
- they could persuade and gain support
- they sometimes used non-violent direct action, but stressed forgiving opponents
14
Q
What opposition did the civil rights movement face in the South?
A
-violent opposition from the KKK as well as from white Southern churches who used the bible to justify segregation
15
Q
When and where was Emmett Till murdered?
A
-14 yr old from Chicago was murdered in August 1955 in Mississippi
16
Q
What happened to Till’s killers?
A
the trial was reported across the country. The jury cleared the defendants after about an hour. The defendants later sold their story (admitting the murder) to a newspaper for $3, 500.
17
Q
What was the impact of Till’s murder?
A
Till’s mother insisted on an open casket with an open viewing of her son’s battered body in the funeral home. This led to huge publicity.
18
Q
Who were the Dixiecrats?
A
The Democrats were the dominant political party of the South. Many politicians opposed integration. The most significant opponents were nicknamed ‘Dixiecrats’ after southern Democrats who had formed their own breakaway party
19
Q
What was the Brown v. Topeka case 1954?
A
the NAACP took the case of Linda Brown to the Supreme Court as she could not go the the white school near her house. The Supreme Court ruled that the Plessy ruling should no longer apply so that ‘separate but equal’ could no longer be used to justify segregated education.
20
Q
What was the impact of this case?
A
- it reversed Plessy, sparking off many more desegregation campaigns
- The Supreme Court set no timetable for desegregation, but in 1955 another Supreme Court case ruled that desegregation should be carried out by states ‘with all deliberate speed’ . A vague statement that gave southern states flexibility.
- In the Deep south progress was slower. Governors of some states, such as Kansas and Mississippi did not accept desegregation
- a white backlash began as can be seen from the Southern Manifesto, a declaration signed by 11 southern states that claimed desegregation was against the US constitution
21
Q
What happened at Little Rock High School in 1957?
A
Little Rock, Arkansas, was desegregating Central High School in 1957. Due to threats and discrimination only nine students were willing to go at the start of the school year. Governor Orval Faubus sent 250 state troopers to ‘keep the peace’ by stopping the black students from entering on the first day of school. On the second day, Elizabeth Eckford, one of the Little Rock Nine students, was shouted at by a mob of white people as she walked into school
22
Q
What was the significance of Little Rock?
A
- photographs of Eckford and the white mob were in the newspapers worldwide with the Little Rock Nine becoming famous. The federal government became embarrassed by the publicity. As a result:
- Eisenhower, who did not initially agree with legally enforcing integration, sent in 1000 federal troops to force Kansas to obey the law
- Faubus’ state troops were put under federal control using a presidential order
- Eisenhower explained his actions on TV saying how states had to respect the law
- Faubus closed every Little Rock school for the next school year in order to avoid integration
- parents forced schools to re-open as integrated in September 1959
23
Q
What were the WCC?
A
- White Citizens Council, set up after the Brown ruling, grew rapidly in the late 1950’s
- campaigned against desegregation
- carried out threats and violent actions against black families and civil rights activists
24
Q
How did civil rights organisations cope with opposition to desegregation in schools?
A
NAACP and CORE sent representatives to work with families of children involved in school desegregation. CORE produced a leaflet advising how students should behave during integration and warning them about the hostility they would face
25
Who was secretary of Montgomery NAACP and leader of it's youth council?
Rosa Parks
26
Why did she become the figurehead of the bus boycott of 1955-6?
- respectable, middle aged, married woman who was well regarded in the black community
- nothing disreputable about her that opponents could use to make her look bad
27
What action was taken due to Park's arrest?
The WPC called for a one-day bus boycott on 5th December 1955. 90% of black passengers boycotted the bus company
28
Who was Montgomery's mayor?
Mayor Gayle
29
What were the aims of the MIA?
- Montgomery Improvement Association - set up on 5th December 1955
- aimed to support the bus boycott and to campaign for improvements demanded by the WPC
30
Who was the leader of the MIA?
MLK
31
When did the Montgomery Bus Boycott take place?
5th December 1955 to 20th December 1956
32
How did the authorities respond?
- many white people in Montgomery opposed the boycott
- WCC membership rose sharply and even Mayor Gayle joined
- white officials harassed MIA officials and arrested them on minor charges such as speeding. On 22nd Feb 89 MIA members were arrested for disrupting lawful business. Their trial increased publicity although King was found guilty and made to pay a $500 fine.
33
What system was introduced to help the boycott?
-MIA met with church groups and organisations to set up car pools, which began on 12th December
34
Why was the boycott successful?
a combination of organisation, commitment, publicity and the leadership of King and E.D Nixon (NAACP member helped organise the boycott and went on fundraising tours)
35
Why was the boycott important?
- showed black people could organise mass resistance
- attracted widespread support and publicity
- made King a well known figure
- showed how non-violent direct action could work
36
What happened after the boycott?
-while buses were desegregated the day after the boycott ended on 21st December 1956 there was still a white backlash.
Multiple black churches were firebombed including the homes of MIA leaders + MLK.
-Bus services had to be suspended for multiple weeks as shots were fired at black people.
-Bus stops and other facilities remained segregated for years after
37
How did the federal government respond to the boycott?
Eisenhower introduced the 1957 Civil Rights Act
38
What was the SCLC?
- Southern Christian Leadership Council - set up in Jan. 1956 with King as leader
- wanted to end all segregation
- campaigned to increase black voter registration by using non-violent direct action, publicity and nationwide protests
39
What does 'filibuster' mean?
- a tactic used by politicians to stop a bill being voted on by talking so long that the time limit of the debate expires.
- used by Strom Thurmond, a Dixiecrat, to stop the first vote on the 1957 Civil Rights Act
40
How effective was the 1957 civil rights act?
- a struggle to pass as Dixiecrats opposed the bill.
- when it eventually passed on 9th September 1957, it allowed the federal government to prosecute states that did not respect black voting rights. However, the trials had to take place in the states themselves and all white juries were unlikely to do anything.
41
What happened in Greensboro, 1960?
1st Feb. 1960 - four black college students sat at a segregated lunch counter at Woolworth's department store and waited to be served despite being told to leave
42
What happened as the boycott progressed?
By 4th Feb. there were over 300 students working in shifts - black and white, male and female
CORE and the SCLC were asked to send people to train the students in non-violent protest tactics
Ella Baker from the SCLC held a meeting of students on 15th April on Raleigh, North Carolina to plan protests across the South
43
What organisation led the sit-ins?
Student Nonviolent Coordination Committee (SNCC)
44
Why was Greensboro significant?
- helped sit-ins to spread across the country
- some white southerners joined CORE and SNCC
- attracted around 50,000 protesters by April 1960
- sit-ins were easy for the media to cover (publicity)
45
What Supreme Court judgment desegregated state transport?
Browder v. Gayle (1956)
46
What were the 'Freedom Rides' of 1961?
CORE activists decided to ride buses from the North to the Deep South to test if desegregation was happening
47
What happened on the first Freedom Ride?
On 4th May 1961, seven black and six white 'Freedom Riders' Washington DC. The Governor of Georgia urged calm but the governor of Alabama spoke out against the riders. KKK and WCC members aimed to stop them.
48
What was the reaction by white opponents?
On 15th May 1961, over 100 KKK members surrounded the first bus in Anniston, Alabama, slashing the tires and smashing windows. Someone threw a firebomb through a window and held the door shut. Passengers escaped just before the fuel tank exploded, although some were beaten up. On 17th May the SNCC set up their own Freedom Riders from Nashville, Tennessee. No driver would take them further than Birmingham, Alabama. At the bus station they encountered an angry mob outside. Governor John Patterson was forced to get them safely to Montgomery by the federal government.
-a policeman fired a gun in the air to stop the mob from attacking the Riders at the Montgomery bus station. The mob (over 1000) then roamed Montgomery, attacking black people and setting one boy on fire
49
What was the impact of the Freedom Rides?
- more people volunteered. Over the summer there were over 60 Freedom Rides
- over 300 Riders went to Jackson, Mississippi's segregated jail
- On 1st November 1961 the federal government pledged to enforce desegregation if states did not obey
- southern states began to desegregate bus facilities
50
What was the name of the black student who tried to enrol at the university of Mississippi in 1962>
James Meredith
51
How had Southern universities responded to desegregation?
1962-the Supreme Court had ordered the University of Mississippi to admit Meredith but university officials and Ross Barnett (state governor and WCC member) physically stopped him from registering
52
How did the federal government respond to the Meredith case?
Meredith returned to register on 30th September 1962 accompanied by 500 federal officials. Kennedy called for calm on television. Despite this, a mob of over 3000 (many armed with little opposition from state police) attacked the federal officials and chanted in favour of Governor Ross Barnet. Many federal marshals were badly injured with 28 shot and hundreds of civilians hurt. Kennedy sent in federal troops who stopped the rioting
53
When did James Meredith register?
on 1st October - federal troops guarded him for the whole year
54
Who was the chief of police in Birmingham, Alabama?
'Bull' Connor - tough chief of police who instructed police not to prevent the KKK from attacking the Freedom Riders
55
What nickname was given to Birmingham?
'Bombingham' due to the regular bombing of black churches, homes, and businesses there
56
How did police respond to civil rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama in 1963?
- Civil rights groups ( including SNCC and SCLC) began campaign 'C' (for 'confrontation') to end segregation. This included sit-ins, mass meetings, peaceful marches and a boycott of shops
- On 2nd May, about 6000 (mostly students) marched. Over 900 were arrested
- The next day on 3rd May, more young people marched. The jails were full so 'Bull' Connor ordered to police to use dogs and fire hoses on protestors.
57
What occurred after the campaign in Birmingham?
- desegregation agreed for Birmingham
- black homes and businesses bombed
- first significant riots against white violence
- Kennedy ordered federal troops into Alabama
- over 1000 black students expelled for missing school
58
What were the longer term effects of the Birmingham campaign?
- federal government fear of widespread race riots
- protests in other cities across USA
- a month later, 143 cities had some desegregation
- many black people felt progress was too slow
- some black Americans thought it was wrong to put children and students in danger through protests
- many more Americans saw civil rights as most important issue - media had helped raise publicity
- the government produced a tougher civil rights bill which became Civil Rights Act 1964
59
What was the March on Washington 1963?
Civil rights leaders led a protest march of people from across the USA: the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
60
How many people took part in the March on Washington?
Over 250,000, about 1/4 of them white
| -largest political gathering in US history at the time
61
Why was the March on Washington significant?
- showed that civil rights was a huge national issue
- broadcast live on television in the USA and in other countries
- King's speech at the Lincoln Memorial meant many more saw King as the leader of the movement
- Black and white people protested together peacefully
- showed support from all classes, including famous people such as Bob Dylan
62
What did the 'Freedom Summer' in 1964 aim to do?
-a campaign run by SNCC and CORE to increase black voter registration in Mississippi in the run up to the 1964 presidential election
63
What progress in black voter registration had been made in the early 1960's?
Between 1962 and 1964, about 700,000 black Americans in the South registered
However, in the countryside and Deep South the number rose hardly at all
64
What did the 'Freedom Summer' involve?
Most volunteers were white college students from middle class families who could afford to work with local campaigners on projects in the black community. Some helped teach locals how to pass voter registration tests.
65
Was there white opposition?
yes - often extremely violent
- many white people from Mississippi did not like what they say as an 'invasion' of liberal white students from other states
- there were 10,000 KKK members in Mississippi who burned 37 black churches and 30 homes during the Freedom Summer
66
how successful was the Freedom Summer?
Not very. Of the 17,000 black people in Mississippi who tried to register to vote, only 1,600 succeeded
67
What were the Mississippi murders?
1964 - three civil rights campaigners - Michael Schwerner (white CORE worker), Andrew Goodman (black CORE worker) and James Chaney (white volunteer ) were arrested while driving home. Later that evening they were released
However, on their way home they were shot by the KKK. Their bodies were found on the 4th August
68
Where was Selma?
Alabama
69
Why was black voter registration so important in Selma?
- it was in Dallas County where more black people were legally entitled to vote than white people, yet only 1% of them were registered.
- had the largest WCC in Alabama
70
What happened in Selma on 7th March, 1965?
600 protestors set out to march from Selma to Montgomery
State troopers stopped them just outside Selma, firing tear gas and attacking protestors with clubs and electric cattle prods
-This became known as Bloody Sunday
-all over the country, people marched in support
71
What were the consequences of Selma?
- Johnson used an executive order to take over the state national guard that subsequently protected the marchers from Selma to Montgomery on 21-24th March.
- Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed
72
What did the Civil Rights Act 1964 do?
- changed the law at a federal level to :
- ban discrimination in voter registration (was not effective as Selma shows)
- banned discrimination in public places and businesses with branches in more than one state
- federal government given power to enforce school desegregation
- federal government could stop giving money to states that discriminated
- allowed the federal government to enforce desegregation in the South in all public places
73
How did the Voting Rights Act 1964 help?
-allowed the government to enforce voting rights
-by the end of 1965, federal registrars had enrolled nearly 80,000 showing some progress
However, change remained slow due to white anger
74
What were the roles of Kennedy and Johnson?
Kennedy:
- appointed black people to high level jobs such as in the courts and the White House
- pressed for Civil Rights Act - but assassinated before passed
- good relationship with MLK
- personal pressure - argued for protection for the Freedom Riders
Johnson:
Appointed black people to high level jobs - eg. courts
-new laws - CRA(1964) and VRA(1965)
-used executive orders - took over state national guard in Alabama to protect Selma marchers
-personal pressure - pressed Southern politicians to support civil rights bill
75
How much had changed between 1954 and 1965?
- Civil Rights Act had ended segregation
- Voting Act had increased voting rights
- but many black Americans continued to face discrimination in housing, work, education, healthcare and treatment by police
76
What religious organisation was Malcolm X a member of after leaving prison?
Nation Of Islam
77
What did black nationalists believe?
they believed integration was ineffective in achieving racial equality so that African Americans should aim to create a separate black nation
78
What did Malcolm X criticise about the civil rights movement?
Before 1964, when Malcolm X was still within the NOI, he criticised non-violent direct action, and believed even the most well-meaning whites could not help black people achieve equality. Wanted separatism, not working with white and use of violence in self defense
79
How did Malcolm X's views change?
In 1964, after leaving the NOI, Malcolm went on a pilgrimage to Mecca and returned with changed views. He was more willing to work with other civil rights organisations
80
When was he assassinated?
1965. By NOI members
81
What was 'Black Power'?
a movement that encouraged black people to be proud of their heritage and culture was suspicious of help from whites and argued against forced integration. They use militant language and often referred to revolution
82
Where did the Black Power movement get most of its support?
From those living in poor areas (often called ghettos) where civil rights seemed to have very little effect on living standard
83
Who was Stokely Carmichael?
Chairman of the SNCC. Later joined the Black Panthers.
84
What happened during the March Against Fear?
-James Meredith led the march in June 1966 but was shot. When he was in hospital, MLK and Stokely Carmichael led the march. Carmichael's speeches were militant and inspired people to go along with his more radical beliefs
85
What were the consequences of the black power movement for civil rights organisations?
both CORE and SNCC became less welcoming to white supporters.
However, they lost significant numbers of black supporters who disagreed with more radical policies
86
Who gave black power salutes at the 1968 Mexico Olympics?
Tommie Smith and John Carlos
87
Who were the Black Panthers?
the Black Panther Party (BPP) was one of the largest Black Power groups. They were more willing than most Black Power groups to work with white people towards their aims. These aims included providing social and economic support to poor black people and defending communities against racism in the police
88
How were the BPP set up?
They were set up in California in October 1966 by Huey P Newton and Bobby Seale
89
What did the BPP do?
-saw themselves as the police and social workers of their communities.
they:
patrolled streets (often armed)
-worked to stop black city gangs from attacking each other
-controlled traffic around schools to protect children
-put pressure on local white government officials to improve facilities
-ran courses on black history and citizens rights
-carried tape recorders to record police harassment
-organised free medical clinics and free clothing for the poor
-Ran the Breakfast Club Program (BCP) to provide breakfast to poor black children
90
What did the BPP achieve?
while the Black Panthers helped some local communities improve living standards they were also frequently involved in crime to pay for their schemes . Some of this money was stolen from banks and black businesses. The BPP was often accused of provoking the police rather than defending the community.
91
How many riots were there between 1964 and 1968?
329 major riots in 257 US cities
92
What were some important riots?
riot in the Watts district of Los Angeles in August 1965 - triggered by the arrest of a young black man
summer riots every year in different cities, mainly in the North
93
Why were there riots?
- police discrimination
- discrimination by white officials - took form of not responding to complaints in mostly black neighbourhoods
- black twice as likely to be unemployed - mostly unskilled, low paid jobs
- more than twice as likely to be poor - mostly white landlords crowded people into badly repaired housing
- poor quality education and life chances
94
What was Johnsons reaction to the riots?
-saw them as a result of political and economic failures. In July 1967 he set up an investigation into the riots
led to the Kerner Report that said:
-ghetto conditions were an important cause
-failure of white officials to fix problems that the black community had pointed out
-the police should try to provide more protection in ghettos and needed to change their often unfair treatment of black people
-police had made the riots worse by using too much violence
-more federal money needed for poor areas
-the media had exaggerated the riots
95
Was King's Chicago campaign 1966 successful?
There were some successes but the Chicago campaign cannot be considered a success on the same level as Montgomery or Selma. This is because:
- many of Chicago's black politicians did not support the campaign
- the SCLC found it hard to connect to the ghetto gangs
- King's message of peaceful non-violence did not work as well as it had with southern church groups
- Chicago's mayor, Richard Daley, seemed reasonable in negotiations with King but then did nothing
- publicity and public sympathy was much less supportive as planned peaceful marches coincided with the outbreak of a violent riot
96
How did the Chicago campaign end?
despite riots, Daley agreed to a meeting with the Chicago Freedom Movement, which led to an agreement on fairer housing. King and many of the SCLC then left Chicago. Once they had left, Daley ignored most of the agreement.
97
When was MLK assassinated?
1968 in Memphis, Tennessee
98
what was the short term impact of King's death ?
- riots in 172 towns and cities across the USA
- Between the 4th and 9th April, 32 black people were dead, 3,500 injured and 27,000 arrested
- the 1968 Civil Rights Act was quickly passed, which included more protections on housing and federal protection of civil rights workers as well as harsher punishments for rioting
99
What was the longer-term impact of King's death?
National civil rights groups lost membership, funding and support from white people
-many black Americans became more radical
100
What did civil rights campaigns focus on between 1969-75?
protests split many ways. the BPP campaigned on social and economic issues, but the Vietnam war increasingly dominated public debate. Black Americans were angry that their civil rights demands were not being met and yet they were expected to fight
101
What did Nixon do for civil rights?
-was elected largely on his pledge to begin withdrawing troops from Vietnam while also winning the conflict. He carefully spoke in favour of civil rights, arguing that his reforms would prevent riots.
His actions were:
-tax cuts for white owned businesses that set up branches in black neighbourhoods
-pressed for diversity hiring - deliberately choosing a black person for a job over a white person in order to increase representation
-made sure there were more black officials in the white house
-bussing school children from ghettos to white schools
102
Had there been progress by 1975?
Progress: the fight for civil rights expanded somewhat to include other minority ethnic groups - for example, the Voting Rights Act was amended in 75 to include Hispanic, Native American and other races. The number of southern black elected officials had increased from fewer than 25 to over 700: in 73 Maynard Jackson became Atlanta's first African-American mayor
Lack of progress: despite this, economic inequality did not get better through the 70's and desegregation did not always bring about improvements in black people's living standards. 58% of school children in the south still went to segregated schools by 1968
