The Urban Environment: Creating Sustainable Cities

Question 1

Senate Bill 100 (Oregon)

Answer 1

passed after Oregon governor challenged the legislature in 1973 following concerns about sprawling development; required every city and county to make a land use plan and follow certain guidelines + establish an urban growth boundary

Question 2

Urban growth boundary (UGB)

Answer 2

a line on a map separating areas to be urban (development encouraged) from areas to stay rural (development restricted); seen by some as key to sustainable development and by others as elitist and intrusive

Question 3

Benefits of urban growth boundaries

Answer 3

revitalize city centers, preserve farms + orchards + ranches + forests, ensure residents have access to open space, save taxpayers money by decreasing the money municipalities must pay for infrastructure

Question 4

Metropolitan Service District (AKA Metro)

Answer 4

a regional planning entity formed by residents (through direct election) around the Portland (Oregon) area; also aimed to build communities where walking, biking and mass transit are possible + had homes built on smaller lots while replacing low-rise structures with multistory apartments; policies mostly succeeded in making regional urban centers denser and more community-oriented

Question 5

Other outcomes of Portland’s regional planning

Answer 5

served as inspiration for others to use UGBs; employment increased as more was invested into the central city; increasing population meant demand exceeded supply of housing especially as UGBs tend to increase housing prices (may thwart efforts)

Question 6

In what year were more people living in urban areas than rural areas (for the first time ever)?

Answer 6

2009

Question 7

Urbanization

Answer 7

the shift from living in the countryside to developing towns/cities; involves technological advancements that boost efficiency and industry; varies between developing and developed countries

Question 8

Since 1950, the urban population has increased by more than ___ times while the rural population has increased not even ___ times.

Answer 8

5; 2

Question 9

Why is it generally beneficial for people to migrate to towns and cities?

Answer 9

industry decreases the need for farm labor and more commerce and jobs are found in cities

Question 10

Urbanization in developed countries

Answer 10

has slowed down because 3/4 of residents already live in cities, towns and suburbs

Question 11

Urbanization in developing countries

Answer 11

very rapid as most still live on farms; migrate for jobs, urban life and to escape ecological degradation

Question 12

What landmarks are major cities often located close to?

Answer 12

river, seacoast, railroad, highway or airport; all are corridors for trade (receiving resources + shipping products) and increase economic growth; allow even resource-poor cities to thrive thanks to powerful technology and cheap transport (but may not last as resources become more scarce)

Question 13

Why might people generally choose to move south?

Answer 13

warmer weather, more space, new economic opportunities, places to retire

Question 14

How did the shift in the United States from cities to suburbs occur?

Answer 14

in the 19th and early 20th centuries cities grew from immigration and increased trade despite crowding, poverty and crime; mid-20th century people preferred suburbs for space, cheaper real estate, less crime and better schools, and jobs followed them; movement was facilitated by automobiles, expanding road networks and inexpensive/abundant oil that allowed people to commute; also grew long-distance transport that allowed businesses to import and export resources, goods and waste (especially with an interstate highway system); caused an economic decline of downtown districts and stagnation in cities

Question 15

What is the drawback of suburban development?

Answer 15

associated with far-reaching negative impact as they are larger than actual city areas; natural areas are destroyed with expansion and development, cars are needed to get anywhere, more time is spent driving and in traffic, etc. (same issues as with sprawl in general)

Question 16

Sprawl

Answer 16

the spread of low-density urban or suburban development out from an urban center; largely from placing homes on spacious lots in residential tracts of a large area that are far from urban centers and commercial amenities; gives each person more space than in the city; sometimes defined as the physical (spatial) spread of development at a rate exceeding population growth (may even shrink while land cover increases)

Question 17

What are the two main components of sprawl?

Answer 17

human population growth and per capita land consumption

Question 18

Why has sprawl largely been considered favorable?

Answer 18

most desire space and privacy and dislike congestion; better highways + inexpensive gas + telecommunication and internet allow flexibility; businesses are free from depending on a centralized infrastructure; economists and politicians encourage expansion under the assumption that growth is always good for the economy + political power + cultural influence

Question 19

How does sprawl cause issues?

Answer 19

constrains transportation options (essentially forces people to own a vehicle, drive most places, drive greater distances and spend more time in a car); associated with more traffic accidents and few or no mass transit options; causes congestion and increases dependence on oil; increases pollution of water (by salt and oil) and air (plus related issues like smog and acid deposition); promotes physical inactivity (in most-sprawling cities people have been found to have higher blood pressure and weigh more for their height); natural and agricultural land are reduced but provide vital resources, recreation, aesthetic beauty, habitat, air and water purification, relief from the noise of urban life, etc.; funnels tax money towards infrastructure on the fringes of communities while taking from their centers (taxes can theoretically pay back investment but taxpayers usually subsidize development)

Question 20

What kind of infrastructure needs to be built as sprawl occurs?

Answer 20

road systems, water/sewer systems, electrical grids, telephone lines, police/fire services, schools, libraries, places to shop, etc.

Question 21

City planning (AKA urban planning)

Answer 21

aims to design cities to their maximum efficiency, beauty, and functionality; planners advise policymakers on development options, transportation needs, etc.; increased in the 20th century to beautify and impose order on fast-growing cities

Question 22

What is the earliest U.S. example of city planning?

Answer 22

Washington, D.C. - Pierre Charles L’Enfant hired by George Washington and designed a spacious layout for monuments

Question 23

Regional planning

Answer 23

growing in importance relative to urban planning; involves broader geographic scales and coordination between many municipal governments

Question 24

Zoning

Answer 24

refers to classifying areas for different types of development and land use; gives home buyers and business owners security as they know what kinds of development is and is not permitted nearby in advance; may involve government restriction of private land use (top-down constraint on personal property rights) but many feel this is useful for community good

Question 25

Gentrification

Answer 25

the transformation of an area to conditions that cater to the wealthy; forces low- and middle-income residents out of the area

Question 26

Smart growth

Answer 26

a proposed solution to sprawl where older, existing communities drained and impoverished by sprawl are rejuvenated with development and economic investment in urban centers, favoring multistory shop-houses and high-rises

Question 27

What are the 10 principles of smart growth?

Answer 27

mixed uses of land, compact building designs, a range of housing opportunities and choices, walkable neighborhoods, attractive communities, preserving open space + farmland + natural beauty + critical environmental areas, strengthening existing communities, providing a variety of transportation options, keeping development decisions predictable + fair + cost-effective, having communities and stakeholders collaborate in decisions

Question 28

New urbanism

Answer 28

a proposed solution to sprawl that favors walkable neighborhoods with homes, businesses, schools, etc. all in close proximity as well as functional design, decreased car use and more public transit

Question 29

Why can it be worthwhile to address congestion and traffic jams?

Answer 29

increase air pollution, cause stress, and cause hours of lost time; cost tens of billions per year in the U.S. in fuel and lost productivity

Question 30

What are some ways to encourage efficient transportation?

Answer 30

increasing fuel taxes, charging trucks for road damage, taxing inefficient vehicle types, rewarding carpoolers with carpool lanes, and providing alternatives; to increase bicycle use, provide bike lanes/paths, public bike racks, special intersection markings to protect riders and bike-sharing programs

Question 31

Sufficient changes to encourage bicycle riding can be implemented for the cost of just one mile of urban freeway.

Answer 31

true

Question 32

Mass transit system

Answer 32

a public system of buses, trains, subways or light rail (smaller rail system powered by electricity) for transportation use by passengers

Question 33

Benefits of mass transit systems

Answer 33

move many people, decrease congestion, take up less space than road networks, emit less pollution, cheaper and more energy-efficient when an urban center is large enough for the infrastructure

Question 34

Urban planning in Curitiba, Brazil (1970s)

Answer 34

necessary after an influx of immigrants from rural areas called for aggressive political aid to direct growth; produced a large number of buses, encouraged bicycle use and walking and made an efficient road system; 3/4 of the population now uses the bus system and car use is decreasing despite growth; provided recycling, environmental education, job training for the poor, and free healthcare; made residents happier compared to those in other cities

Question 35

Why does the United States lag behind most other countries (both wealthy and not) when it comes to mass transit?

Answer 35

invested in road networks instead because population density was low compared to other countries and gas was cheap; now energy cost and population growth has made alternatives more appealing

Question 36

High Line Park (Manhattan)

Answer 36

located on an elevated freight line that was going to be demolished; now used for recreation and commuting by many

Question 37

How can even small natural spaces make a difference for people and the environment?

Answer 37

playgrounds benefit children, community gardens allow flowers and other important plants to be grown, "greenways" along rivers/canals/old railway lines = walking trails, increased water quality, increased property values and corridors for wildlife movement

Question 38

Origin of U.S. park landscapes

Answer 38

19th century; lawns, shaded groves and curved paths influenced by European parks and gardens; main landscape architect was Frederick Law Olmsted (son later hired in 1904 and made a plan to surround Portland with parks but no action was taken until pressure by residents created Forest Park decades later)

Question 39

Green buildings

Answer 39

structures built from sustainable materials that also use less energy and water, control their pollution, recycle waste and minimize health impacts on occupants (since most time is spent indoors for the majority of people)

Question 40

Buildings (and their components) represent about ___ % of energy use and ___ % of electricity use.

Answer 40

40; 70

Question 41

U.S. Green Building Council

Answer 41

promotes sustainable buildings with a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification program, where builders apply for new projects and are granted a silver, gold or platinum status based on their performance; program allows savings on energy, water and waste to quickly pay for the additional expenses of green buildings

Question 42

What kinds of pollution are urban areas exposed to?

Answer 42

smog, toxic industrial compounds, fossil fuels, noise pollution, light pollution, thermal pollution

Question 43

Urban heat island effect

Answer 43

refers to the way people, buildings, and vehicles generate heat in urban settings and how buildings and dark paved surfaces absorb it; heat is released at night and makes cities warmer than areas with more vegetation

Question 44

Environmental justice

Answer 44

an approach to environmental issues that recognizes and seeks to address the unequal environmental burden placed onto particular communities and groups of people over others (ex. the worst pollution in urban areas is experienced by those who are poor)

Question 45

Why are cities not necessarily less sustainable than the countryside?

Answer 45

allow walking and public transport over car use, water and electricity are easily supplied, police/fire/medical care is close by, and waste is easily collected; rural areas need resources to transport or travel to get the same needs met (plus exporting waste transfers costs elsewhere and masks them from residents); cities can still preserve natural lands within and beyond

Question 46

Urban ecology

Answer 46

the study of how ecosystems function in cities and suburbs, how natural systems respond to urbanization, and how people interact with an urban environment; views cities themselves as ecological systems; aims to maximize efficient resource use, recycle waste/wastewater and develop green technology (ex. urban agriculture can recycle organic waste, restore soil nutrients and produce locally consumed food)

Question 47

Urban ecology research in Baltimore and Phoenix

Answer 47

centers for research in U.S. selected by the National Science Foundation; use maps, aerial photos, and remote sensing satellite data to get a history of the landscape and study both rural and urbanized areas to compare them; can use isotopes to trace the origins of salts, etc.

Question 48

Findings of ecological research comparing urbanized with rural areas

Answer 48

pavement, rooftops, and compact soil lead to heavy runoff, which cuts deep into streambeds and leaves surrounding soil dry such that wetland vegetation decreases and dry-adapted vegetation thrives; urbanization also increases the frequency of flash floods and decreases the ability of streams and wetlands to filter/break down pollution; nitrate pollution is worst in agricultural areas (with suburbs close behind); streams can become up to 100x saltier which kills organisms, degrades habitat and water, and also worsens nitrate filtering; facilitates the spread of non-native species as exotic ornamental plants are introduced, soil/climate/landscape impacts favor weedy generalist species over specialized native ones, and reliable food sources (compared to natural areas) are provided as bird feeders, food scraps, etc.; growing seasons are extended and seasonal variation is decreased as urban heat islands increase nighttime temperatures and equalize year-round temperatures; close proximity to parks increases property values (unless crime is pervasive); childhood asthma and other health issues increase, especially in less affluent areas with more racial/ethnic minorities

Question 49

What is the effect of watering gardens in very dry or desert cities?

Answer 49

increases primary productivity (photosynthesis) and lowers daytime temperatures; population density of animals increases but biodiversity decreases

Question 50

Why are cities considered resource sinks?

Answer 50

import almost everything to feed, clothe and house people + power commerce and may bring water in from far away; use fossil fuels to import resources; rely on lots of land elsewhere for resources and ecosystem services

Question 51

Cities have a very large ecological footprint, but residents may only have a small-to-moderate footprint per capita.

Answer 51

true

Question 52

What is the cultural benefit of cities?

Answer 52

diverse people and influences mingle within, which leads to innovation, scientific research, technology and art; may even lead to environmental solutions

Question 53

Why are circular systems (like recycling and renewable energy) for resource use and waste disposal better than linear ones (where all resources are imported and all waste is exported)?

Answer 53

one-way nature of linear system destabilizes the environmental system and leads to resource scarcity

Question 54

PlaNYC (now OneNYC)

Answer 54

an urban planning program introduced to New York in 2007 that managed to decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 19% and improve air quality substantially; increased energy efficiency in buildings, planted trees, opened and renovated school playgrounds, made community gardens, upgraded wastewater treatment plants, implemented protections for the water supply, increased recycling and solar panel use, cleaned up polluted sites, encouraged bike riding and electric vehicles, retrofitted ferries to decrease pollution and converted taxis to hybrids