THE ULTIMATE FLASH CARD SET
common goods
goods that all people may use but that are of limited supply
democracy
a form of government where political power rests in the hands of the people
direct democracy
a form of government where people participate directly in making government decisions instead of choosing representatives to do this for them
government
the means by which a society organizes itself and allocates authority in order to accomplish collective goals
majority rule
a fundamental principle of democracy; the majority should have the power to make decisions binding upon the whole
minority rights
protections for those who are not part of the majority
monarchy
a form of government where one ruler, usually a hereditary one, holds political power
oligarchy
a form of government where a handful of elite society members hold political power
political power
influence over a government’s institutions, leadership, or policies
politics
the process by which we decide how resources will be allocated and which policies government will pursue
private goods
goods provided by private businesses that can be used only by those who pay for them
public goods
goods provided by government that anyone can use and that are available to all without charge
representative democracy
a form of government where voters elect representatives to make decisions and pass laws on behalf of all the people instead of allowing people to vote directly on laws
toll goods
a good that is available to many people but is used only by those who can pay the price to do so
totalitarianism
a form of government where government is all-powerful and citizens have no rights
elite theory
claims political power rests in the hands of a small elite group of people
pluralist theory
claims political power rests in the hands of groups of people.
ideology
the beliefs and ideals that help to shape political opinion and eventually policy
intense preferences
beliefs and preferences people are not deeply committed ago and that change over time
partisanship
strong support. or even blind allegiance for a particular political party
social capital
connections with others and the willingness to interact and aid them
declaration of independence
a document written in 1776 in which the American colonists proclaimed their independence from Great Britain and listed their grievances against the British king
natural rights
the right to life, liberty, and property; believed to be given by God; no government may take away
social contract
an agreement between people and government in which citizens consent to be governed so long as the government protects their natural rights
articles of confederation
the first basis for the new nation’s government; adopted in 1781; created an alliance of sovereign states held together by a weak central government
confederation
a highly decentralized form of government; sovereign states form a union for purposes such as mutual defense
republic
a form of government in which political power rests in the hands of the people, not a monarch, and is exercised by elected representatives
bicameral legislature
a legislature with two houses, such as the U.S. Congress
checks and balances
a system that allows one branch of government to limit the exercise of power by another branch; requires the different parts of government to work together
enumerated powers
the powers given explicitly to the federal government by the Constitution (Article I, Section 8); power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, raise and support armies, declare war, coin money, and conduct foreign affairs
federal system
a form of government in which power is divided between state governments and a national government
great compromise
a compromise between the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan that created a two-house Congress; representation based on population in the House of Representatives and equal representation of states in the Senate
new jersey plan
a plan that called for a one-house national legislature; each state would receive one vote
reserved powers
any powers not prohibited by the Constitution or delegated to the national government; powers reserved to the states and denied to the federal government
separation of powers
the sharing of powers among three separate branches of government
supremacy clause
he statement in Article VI of the Constitution that federal law is superior to laws passed by state legislatures
3/5 compromise
a compromise between northern and southern states that called for counting of all a state’s free population and 60 percent of its slave population for both federal taxation and representation in Congress
unicameral legislature
a legislature with only one house, like the Confederation Congress or the legislature proposed by the New Jersey Plan
veto
the power of the president to reject a law passed by congress
virginia plan
a plan for a two-house legislature; representatives would be elected to the lower house based on each state’s population; representatives for the upper house would be chosen by the lower house
anti federalists
those who did not support ratification of the constitution
federalists
those who supported ratification of the constitution
the federalist papers
a collection of 85 essays written by alexander hamilton, james madison, and john jay in support of ratification of the constitution
bill of rights
the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution; most were designed to protect fundamental rights and liberties
cabinet
a group of advisors to the president, consisting of the most senior appointed officers of the executive branch who head the 15 executive departments
executive agreement
an international agreement between the president and another country made by the executive branch and without formal consent by the Senate
executive order
a rule or order issued by the president without the cooperation of Congress and having the force of law
executive privilege
the president’s right ti withhold information from Congress, the judiciary, or the public
impeachment
the act of charging a government with serious wrongdoing, which in some cases may lead to the removal of that official from office
king caucus
in informal meeting held in the 19th century sometimes called a congressional caucus made up of legislators in the congress who met to decide on presidential nominees for their respective parties
Office of Management and Budget
an office within the Executive Office of the President charged with producing the president’s budget, overseeing its implementation, and overseeing the executive bureaucracy
Executive Office of the President
the administrative organization that reports directly to the president and made up of important offices, units, and staff of the current president and headed by the White House chief of staff
bully pulpit
Theodore Roosevelt’s notion of the presidency as a platform from which the president could push an agenda
going public
a term for when the president delivers a major television address in the hope that public pressure will result in legislators supporting the president on a major piece of legislation
line item veto
a power created through law in 1996 and overturned by the Supreme Court in 1998 that allowed the president to veto specific aspects of bills passed by Congress while signing into law what remained
rally around the flag effect
a spike in presidential popularity during international crises
signing statement
a statement a president issues with the intent to influence the way a specific bill the president signs should be enforced
apportionment
he process by which seats in the House of Representatives are distributed among the fifty states
bicameralism
the political process that results from dividing a legislature into two separate assemblies
bill
proposed legislation under consideration by a legislature
constituency
the body of voters, or constituents, represented by a particular politician
enumerated powers
the powers given explicitly to the federal government by the Constitution to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, raise and support armies, declare war, coin money, and conduct foreign affairs
implied powers
the powers not specifically detailed in the U.S. Constitution but inferred as necessary to achieve the objectives of the national government
inherent powers
the powers neither enumerated nor implied but assumed to exist as a direct result of the country’s existence
oversight
the right to review and monitor other bodies such as the executive branch
surge and decline theory
a theory proposing that the surge of stimulation occurring during presidential elections subsides during midterm elections, accounting for the differences we observe in turnouts and results
collective representation
relationship between Congress and the US as a whole and whether the institution itself represents the american people
delegate model of representation
a model of representation in which representatives feel compelled to act on the specific stated wishes of their constituents
descriptive representation
the extent to which a body of representatives represents the descriptive characteristics of their constituencies, such as class, race, ethnicity, and gender
politico model of representation
a model of representation in which members of Congress act as either trustee or delegate, based on rational political calculations about who is best served, the constituency or the nation
pork barrel politics
federal spending intended to benefit a particular district or set of constituents
representation
an elected leader’s looking out for his or her constituents while carrying out the duties of the office
trustee model of representation
a model of representation in which representatives feel at liberty to act in the way they believe is best for their constituents
conference committee
a special type of joint committee that reconciles different bills passed in the House and Senate so a single bill results
joint committee
a legislative committee consisting of members from both chambers that investigates certain topics but lacks bill referral authority
majority leader
the leader of the majority party in either the House or Senate; in the House, the majority leader serves under the Speaker of the House, in the Senate, the majority leader is the functional leader and chief spokesperson for the majority party
minority leader
the party member who directs the activities of the minority party on the floor of either the House or the Senate
president pro tempore
the senator who acts in the absence of the actual president of the Senate, who is also the vice president of the United States; the president pro tempore is usually the most senior senator of the majority party
select committee
a small legislative committee created to fulfill a specific purpose and then disbanded; also called an ad hoc, or special, committee
speaker of the house
the presiding officer of the House of Representatives and the leader of the majority party; the Speaker is second in the presidential line of succession, after the vice president
standing committee
a permanent legislative committee that meets regularly
whip
in the House and in the Senate, a high leadership position whose primary duty is to enforce voting discipline in the chambers and conferences
cloture
a parliamentary process to end debate in the Senate, as a measure against filibuster; invoked when 3/5 of senators vote for the motion
filibuster
a parliamentary maneuver used in the Senate to extend debate on a piece of legislation as long as possible typically with the intended purpose of obstructing or killing it
markup
the amending and voting process in a congressional committee
bureaucracy
an administrative group of nonelected officials charged with carrying out functions connected to a series of policies and programs
bureaucrats
the civil servants or political appointees who fill nonelected positions in government and make up the bureaucracy
civil servants
the individuals who fill nonelected positions in government and make up the bureaucracy; also known as bureaucrats
merit system
a system of filling civil service positions by using competitive examinations to value experience and competence over political loyalties
patronage
the use of government positions to reward individuals for their political support
public administration
the implementation of public policy as well as the academic study that prepares civil servants to work in government
spoils system
a system that rewards political loyalties or party support during elections with bureaucratic appointments after victory
pay schedule
a chart that shows salary ranges for different levels of positions vertically and for different ranks of seniority horizontally
government corporation
a corporation that fulfills an important public interest and is therefore overseen by government authorities to a much larger degree than private businesses
red tape
the mechanisms, procedures, and rules that must be followed to get something done
negotiated rulemaking
a rulemaking process in which neutral advisors convene a committee of those who have vested interests in the proposed rules and help the committee reach a consensus on them
privatization
measures that incorporate the market forces of the private sector into the function of government to varying degrees
whistleblower
a person who publicizes misdeeds committed within a bureaucracy or other organization
bill of attainder
a legislative action declaring someone guilty without a trial; prohibited under the Constitution
concurrent powers
shared state and federal powers that range from taxing, borrowing, and make in and enforcing laws to establishing court systems
devolution
a process in which powers from the central government in a unitary system are delegated to subnational units
elastic clause
the last clause of Article I, Section 8, which enables the national government “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying” out all its constitutional responsibilities
ex post facto law
a law that criminalizes an act retroactively; prohibited under the Constitution
federalism
an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on the people with authority granted by the national constitution
full faith and credit clause
found in Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution, this clause requires states to accept court decisions, public acts, and contracts of other states; also referred to as the comity provision
privileges and immunities clause
found in Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, this clause prohibits states from discriminating against out-of-staters by denying such guarantees as access to courts, legal protection, and property and travel rights
unitary system
a centralized system of government in which the subnational government is dependent on the central government, where substantial authority is concentrated
writ of habeas corpus
a petition that enables someone in custody to petition a judge to determine whether that person’s detention is legal
cooperative federalism
a style of federalism in which both levels of government coordinate their actions to solve national problems, leading to the blending of layers as in a marble cake
dual federalism
a style of federalism in which the states and national government exercise exclusive authority in distinctly delineated spheres of jurisdiction, creating a layer-cake view of federalism
general revenue sharing
a type of federal grant that places minimal restrictions on how state and local governments spend the money
new federalism
a style of federalism premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves outcomes
nullification
a doctrine promoted by John Calhoun of South Carolina in the 1830s, asserting that if a state deems a federal law unconstitutional, it can nullify it within its borders
block grant
a type of grant that comes with less stringent federal administrative conditions and provide recipients more latitude over how to spend grant funds
categorical grant
a federal transfer formulated to limit recipients’ discretion in the use of funds and subject them to strict administrative criteria
creeping categorization
a process in which the national government attaches new administrative requirements to block grants or supplants them with new categorical grants
unfunded mandates
federal laws and regulations that impose obligations on state and local governments without fully compensating them for the costs of implementation
immigration federalism
the gradual movement of states into the immigration policy domain traditionally handled by the federal government
venues shopping
strategy in which interest groups select the level and branch of government they calculate will be the most receptive to their policy goals
race to the bottom
a dynamic in which states compete to attract business by lowering taxes and relgulations, often to workers’s detriment
appellate jurisdiction
the power of a court to hear a case on appeal from a lower court and possibly change the lower court’s decision
common law
the pattern of law developed by judges through case decisions largely based on precedent
judicial review
the power of the courts taken by the other branches of government and the states and to rule on whether those actions are constitutional
marbury v. madison
an 1803 supreme court case that established the courts’ power of judicial review and the first time the supreme court ruled an act congress to be unconstitutional
original jurisdiction
the power of a court to hear a case fro the first time
appellate court
a court that review cases already decided by a lower or trial court and that may change the lower court’s decision
civil law
a non criminal law defining private rights and remedies
criminal law
a law that prohibits actions that could harm or endanger others, and establishes punishment for those actions
dual court system
the division of the courts into two separate systems, one federal and one state, with each of the fifty states having its own courts
trial court
the level of court in which a case starts or is first tries
circuit courts
the appeals (appellate) courts of the federal court system that review decisions of the lower (district) courts; also called courts of appeals
court of appeals
the appellate courts of the federal court system that review decisions of the lower (district) courts; also called circuit courts
district courts
the trial courts of the federal court system where cases are tried, evidence is presented, and witness testimony is heard
precedent
the principles or guidelines established by courts in earlier cases that frame the ongoing operation of the courts, steering the direction of the entire system
senatorial courtesy
an unwritten custom by which the president consults the senators in the state before nominating a candidate for a federal vacancy there, particularly for court positions
stare decisis
the principle by which courts rely on past decisions and their precedents when making decisions in new cases
amicus curiae
literally a “friend of the court” and used for a brief filed by someone who is interested in but not party to a case
associate justice
a member of the Supreme Court who is not the chief justice
brief
a written legal argument presented to ac court by one of the parties in a case
chief justice
the highest-ranking justice on the Supreme Court
conference
closed meeting of the justices to discuss cases on the docket and take an initial vote
docket
the list of cases pending on a court’s calendar
oral argument
words spoken before the Supreme Court (usually by lawyers) explaining the legal reasons behind their position in a case and why it should prevail
rule of four
a Supreme Court custom in which a case will be heard when four justices decide to do so
solicitor general
the lawyer who represents the federal government and argues some cases before the Supreme Court
writ of certiorari
an order of the Supreme Court calling up the records of the lower court so a case may be reviewed; sometimes abbreviated cert.
concurring opinion
an opinion written by a justice who agrees with the Court’s majority opinion but has different reasons for doing so
dissenting opinion
an opinion written by a justice who disagrees with the majority opinion of the Court
judicial activism
a judicial philosophy in which a justice is more likely to overturn decisions or rule actions by the other branches unconstitutional, especially in an attempt to broaden individual rights and liberties
judicial restraint
a judicial philosophy in which a justice is more likely to let stand the decisions or actions of the other branches of government
majority opinion
an opinion of the Court with which more than half the nine justices agree
agents of political socialization
a person or entity that teaches and influences others about politics through use of information
classical liberalism
a political ideology based on belief in individual liberties and rights and the idea of free will, with little role for government
communism
a political and economic system in which, in theory, government promotes common ownership of all property, means of production, and materials to prevent the exploitation of workers while creating an equal society; in practice, most communist governments have used force to maintain control
covert content
ideologically slanted information presented as unbiased information in order to influence public opinion
diffuse support
the widespread belief that a country and its legal system are legitimate
fascism
a political system of total control by the ruling party or political leader over the economy, the military, society, and culture and often the private lives of citizens
modern conservatism
a political ideology that prioritizes individual liberties, preferring a smaller government that stays out of the economy
modern liberalism
a political ideology focused on equality and supporting government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality
overt content
political information whose author makes clear that only one side is presented
political socialization
the process of learning the norms and practices of a political system through others and societal institutions
public opinion
a collection of opinions of an individual or a group of individuals on a topic, person, or event
socialism
a political and economic system in which government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality, providing everyone with basic services and equal opportunities and requiring citizens with more wealth to contribute more
traditional conservatism
a political ideology supporting the authority of the monarchy and the church in the belief that government provides the rule of law
Bradley Effect
the difference between a poll result and an election in which voters gave socially desirable poll response rather than a true response that might be perceived as racist
exit poll
an election poll taken by interviewing voters as they leave a polling place
leading question
a question worded to lead a respondent to give a desired answer
margin of error
a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual preferences of the total population of citizens
push poll
politically biased campaign information presented as a poll in order to change minds
random sample
a limited number of people from the overall population selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen
representative sample
a group of respondents demographically similar to the population of interest
straw poll
an informal and unofficial election poll conducted with a non-random population
heuristics
shortcuts or rule of thumb for decision making
political culture
the prevailing political attitudes and beliefs within a society or region
political elite
a political opinion leader who alerts the public to changes or problems
bandwagon effect
increased media coverage of candidates who poll high
favorability poll
a public opinion poll that measures.
horserace coverage
day-to-day media coverage of candidate performance in the election.
theory of delegate representation
a theory that assumes the politician is in office to be the voice of the people and to vote only as the people want
residency requirement
the stipulation that citizen must live in a state for a determined period of time before a citizen can register to vote as a resident of that state
chronic minority
voters who belong to political parties that tend not to be competitive in national elections because they are too small to become a majority or because of the Electoral college system distribution in their state
early voting
an accommodation that that allows voting up to two weeks before election day
voter fatigue
the result when voters grow tired of voting and state home from the polls
voting age population
the number of citizens over eighteen
voting-eligible population
the number of citizens eligible to vote
caucus
a form of candidate nomination that occurs in a town-hall style format rather than a day-long election; usually reserved for presidential elections
closed primary
an election in which only voters registered with a party may vote for that party’s candidates
coattail effect
the result when a popular presidential candidate helps candidates from his or her party win their own elections
delegates
party members who are chosen to represent a particular candidate at the party’s state- or national-level nominating convention
district system
the means by which electoral votes are divided between candidates based on who wins districts and/or the state
electoral college
the constitutionally created group of individuals, chosen by the states, with the responsibility of formally selecting the next U.S. president
incumbent
the current holder of a political office
midterm elections
the congressional elections that occur in the even-numbered years between presidential election years, in the middle of the president’s term
open primary
an election in which any registered voter may vote in any party’s primary or caucus
platform
the set of issues important to the political party and the party delegates
(PAC) political action committee
organizations created to raise money for political campaigns and spend money to influence policy and politics
super PACS
officially known as Independent Expenditure-Only Committees; organizations that can fundraise and spend as they please to support or attack a candidate but not contribute directly to a candidate or strategize with a candidate’s campaign
top-two primary
a primary election in which the two candidates with the most votes, regardless of party, become the nominees for the general election
winner take all system
all electoral votes for a state are given to the candidate who wins the most votes in that state
ballot fatigue
the result when a voter stops voting for offices and initiatives at the bottom of a long ballot
incumbency advantage
the advantage held by officeholders that allows them to often win reelection
shadow campaign
a campaign run by political action committees and other organizations without the coordination of the candidate
straight-ticket voting
the practice of voting only for candidates from the same party
initiative
law or constitutional amendment proposed and passed by the voters and subject to review by the state courts; also called a proposition
recall
the removal of a politician or government official by the voters
referendum
a yes or no vote by citizens on a law or candidate proposed by the state government
agenda setting
the media’s ability to choose which issues or topic get attention
mass media
the collection of all media forms that communicate information to the general public
public relations
biased communication intended to improve the image of people, companies, or organizations
citizen journalism
video and print news posted to the internet or social media by citizens rather than the news media
digital paywall
the need for a paid subscription to access published online material
muckraking
news coverage focusing on exposing corrupt business and government practices
party press era
period during the 1780s in which newspaper content was biased by political partisanship
soft news
news presented in an entertaining style
yellow journalism
sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories
equal time rule
an FCC policy that all candidates running for office must be given the same radio and television airtime opportunities
fairness doctrine
a 1949 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) policy, now defunct, that required holders of broadcast licenses to cover controversial issues in a balanced manner
Freedom of Information Act
a federal statute that requires public agencies to provide certain types of information requested by citizens
indecency regualtions
laws that limit indecent and obscene material on public airwaves
libel
printed information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization
prior restraint
a government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (e.g., forbidding someone to publish a book he or she plans to release)
reporter’s privilege
the right of a journalist to keep a source confidential
slander
spoken information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization
sunshine laws
laws that require government documents and proceedings to be made public
beat
the coverage area assigned to journalists for news or stories
cultivation theory
the idea that media affects a citizen’s worldview throughout the information presented
framing
the process of giving a news story a specific context or background
hypodermic theory
the idea that information is placed in a citizen’s brain and accepted
minimal effects theory
the idea that the media have little effect on citizens
priming
the process of predisposing readers or viewers to think a particular way
party platform
the collection of a party’s positions on issues it considers politically important
personal politics
a political style that focuses on building direct relationships with voters rather than on promoting specific issues
political machine
an organization that secures votes for a party’s candidates or supports the party in other ways, usually in exchange for political favors such as a job in government
political parties
organizations made up of groups of people with similar interests that try to directly influence public policy through their members who seek and hold public office
third parties
political parties formed as an alternative to the Republican and Democratic parties, also known as minor parties
critical election
an election that represents a sudden, clear, and long-term shift in voter allegiances
first past the post
a system in which the winner of an election is the candidate who wins the greatest number of votes cast, also known as plurality voting
majoritarian voting
a type of election in which the winning candidate must receive at least 50 percent of the votes, even if a run-off election is required
party realignment
a shifting of party alliances within the electorate
plurality voting
the election rule by which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of vote share
proportional representation
a party-based election rule in which the number of seats a party receives is a function of the share of votes it receives in an election
two party systems
a system in which two major parties win all or almost all elections
majority party
the legislative party with over half the seats in a legislative body, and thus significant power to control the agenda
minority party
the legislative party with less than half the seats in a legislative body
party identifiers
individuals who represent themselves in public as being part of a party
party-in-government
party identifiers who have been elected to office and are responsible for fulfilling the party’s promises
party-in-the-electorate
members of the voting public who consider themselves part of a political party or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other
party organization
the formal structure of the political party and the active members responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates
precinct
the lowest level of party organization, usually organized around neighborhoods
bipartisanship
a process of cooperation through compromise
divided government
a condition in which one or more houses of the legislature is controlled by the party in opposition to the executive
gerrymandering
the manipulation of legislative districts in an attempt to favor a particular candidate
moderate
an individual who falls in the middle of the ideological spectrum
party polarization
the shift of party positions from moderate towards ideological extremes
reapportionment
the reallocation of House seats between the states to account for population changes
redistricting
the redrawing of electoral maps
safe seat
a district drawn so members of a party can be assured of winning by a comfortable margin
sorting
the process in which voters change party allegiances in response to shifts in party position
association
groups of companies or institutions that organize around a common set of concerns, often within a given industry or trade
collective good
a good such as public safety or clean air, often produced by government, that is generally available to the population as a whole
contract lobbyist
a lobbyist who works for a contract lobbying firm that represents clients before government
in-house lobbyist
an employee or executive within an organization who works as a lobbyist on behalf of the organization
inside lobbying
the act of contacting and taking the organization’s message directly to lawmakers in an attempt to influence policy
legislative liason
a person employed by a governmental entity such as a local government, executive department, or university to represent the organization before the legislature
lobbyist
a person who represents an organization before government in an attempt to influence policy
membership organization
an interest group that usually consists of dues-paying members who organize around a particular cause or issue
outside lobbying
the act of lobbying indirectly by taking the organization’s message to the public, often through the use of the media and/or by issue press releases, in hopes that the public will then put pressure on lawmakers
particularized benefit
a benefit that generally accrues to a narrow segment of society
public interest group
an interest group that seeks a public good, which is something that accrues to all
disturbance theory
the theory that an external event can lead to interest group mobilization
free rider problem
the situation that occurs when some individuals receive benefits (get a free ride) without helping to bear the cost
material incentives
substantive monetary or physical benefits given to group members to help overcome collective action problems
purposive incentives
benefits to overcome collective action problems that appeal to people’s support of the issue or cause
solidary incentives
benefits based on the concept that people like to associate with those who are similar to them
astroturf movement
a political movement that resembles a grassroots movement but is often supported or facilitated by wealthy interests and/or elites
efficacy
the belief that you make a difference and that government cares about you and your views
elite critique
the proposition that wealthy and elite interests are advantaged over those without resources
fragmentation
the result when a large interest group develops diverging needs
grassroots movement
a political movement that often begins from the bottom up, inspired by average citizens concerned about a given issue
iron triangle
three-way relationship among congressional committees, interests groups, and the bureaucracy
issue network
a group of interest groups and people who work together to support a particular issue or policy
neopluralist
a person who suggests that all groups’ access and influence depend on the political environment
pluralist
a person who believes many groups healthily compete for access to decision-makers
voting cues
sources—including fellow lawmakers, constituents, and interest groups—that lawmakers often use to help them decide how to vote, especially on unfamiliar issues
citizens united
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was a 2010 Supreme Court case that granted corporations and unions the right to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections
revolving door laws
laws that require a cooling-off period before government officials can register to lobby after leaving office
soft money
money that interests can spend on behalf of candidates without being restricted by federal law
residency requirement
the stipulation that citizen must live in a state for a determined period of time before a citizen can register to vote as a resident of that state
charter
a document that provides a framework and detailed account of local government responsibilities and areas of authority
Dilllon’s Rule
a legal principle that holds state power and actions above those of local governments and declares state governments to be sovereign relative to local governments
expressed power
those powers specifically provided to the Congress and the president in the U.S. Constitution
home rule
principle that provides local governments some degree of independence from the state government, typically detailed in a charter
implied powers
those powers not specifically detailed in the U.S. Constitution but inferred as necessary to achieve the objectives of the national government
individualistic political culture
a culture that views the government as a mechanism for addressing issues that matter to individual citizens and for pursuing individual goals
moralistic political culture
a culture that views the government as a means to better society and promote the general welfare
traditionalistic political culture
a culture that views the government as necessary to maintaining the existing social order or the status quo
amendatory veto
a veto that allows a governor to send a bill back to the legislature with a message requesting a specific amendment
delegate legislator
a legislator who represents the will of those who elected him or her to office and acts in their expressed interest, even when it goes against a personal belief about what is ultimately in the constituency’s best interest
formal powers
those powers a governor may exercise that are specifically outlined in the state constitution or state law
line-item veto
a state governor’s ability to strike out a line or individual portions of a bill while letting the remainder pass into law
pardon
a governor’s action to absolve someone of blame for a crime and secure his or her release from prison
reduction veto
a governor’s authority to reduce the amount budgeted in a piece of legislation
trustee
an officeholder who believes he or she was elected to exercise judgment and to know best by virtue of having the time and expertise to study and understand an issue
consecutive term limits
caps allowing a member of the legislature to serve for only a specified period of time in either the state house or senate and forcing a wait before the member can run again
lifetime ban
a rule that members can serve only one time in the state legislature for the number of years allotted and may not run again
term limits
rules that restrict the length of time a member can serve in the state legislature
commission system
an elected commission that serves as the governing body within a given county
council-administrator system
an elected council that appoints an administrator to oversee the operation of the county government
council-elected executive system
a county government in which voters elect both the members of the council and the executive
council-manager system
a structure of government in which elected members of the city council appoint a city manager to carry out administrative functions
mayor-council system
a structure of government in which both city council members and the mayor are elected by voters
civil liberties
limitations on the power of government, designed to ensure personal freedoms
civil rights
guarantees of equal treatment by government authorities
due process clause
provisions of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments that limit government power to deny people “life, liberty, or property” on an unfair basis
selective incorporation
the gradual process of making some guarantees of the Bill of Rights (so far) apply to state governments and the national government
blue law
a law originally created to uphold a religious or moral standard, such as a prohibition against selling alcohol on Sundays
common-law right
a right of the people rooted in legal tradition and past court rulings, rather than the Constitution
conscientious objector
a person who claims the right to refuse to perform military service on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, or religion
establishment clause
the provision of the First Amendment that prohibits the government from endorsing a state-sponsored religion; interpreted as preventing government from favoring some religious beliefs over others or religion over non-religion
exclusionary rule
a requirement, from Supreme Court case Mapp v. Ohio, that evidence obtained as a result of an illegal search or seizure cannot be used to try someone for a crime
free exercise clause
the provision of the First Amendment that prohibits the government from regulating religious beliefs and practices
obscenity
acts or statements that are extremely offensive by contemporary standards
prior restraint
a government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (e.g., forbidding someone to publish a book he or she plans to release)
probable cause
legal standard for determining whether a search or seizure is constitutional or a crime has been committed; a lower threshold than the standard of proof needed at a criminal trial
search warrant
a legal document, signed by a judge, allowing police to search and/or seize persons or property
sherbert test
a standard for deciding whether a law violates the free exercise clause; a law will be struck down unless there is a “compelling governmental interest” at stake and it accomplishes its goal by the “least restrictive means” possible
symbolic speech
a form of expression that does not use writing or speech but nonetheless communicates an idea (e.g., wearing an article of clothing to show solidarity with a group)
double jeopardy
a prosecution pursued twice at the same level of government for the same criminal action
economic liberty
the right of individuals to obtain, use, and trade things of value for their own benefit
eminent domain
the power of government to take or use property for a public purpose after compensating its owner; also known as the takings clause of the Fifth Amendment
miranda warning
a statement by law enforcement officers informing a person arrested or subject to interrogation of his or her rights
plea bargain
an agreement between the defendant and the prosecutor in which the defendant pleads guilty to the charge(s) in question or perhaps to less serious charges, in exchange for more lenient punishment than if convicted after a full trial
self incrimination
an action or statement that admits guilt or responsibility for a crime
patriot act
a law passed by Congress in the wake of the 9/11 attacks that broadened federal powers to monitor electronic communications; the full name is the USA PATRIOT Act (Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act)
right to privacy
the right to be free of government intrusion
undue burden test
a means of deciding whether a law that makes it harder for women to seek abortions is constitutional
affirmative action
the use of programs and policies designed to assist groups that have historically been subject to discrimination
black codes
laws passed immediately after the Civil War that discriminated against freed slaves and other blacks and deprived them of their rights
equal protection clause
a provision of the Fourteenth Amendment that requires the states to treat all residents equally under the law
intermediate scrutiny
the standard used by the courts to decide cases of discrimination based on gender and sex; burden of proof is on the government to demonstrate an important governmental interest is at stake in treating men differently from women
rational basis test
the standard used by the courts to decide most forms of discrimination; the burden of proof is on those challenging the law or action to demonstrate there is no good reason for treating them differently from other citizens
strict scrutiny
the standard used by the courts to decide cases of discrimination based on race, ethnicity, national origin, or religion; burden of proof is on the government to demonstrate a compelling governmental interest is at stake and no alternative means are available to accomplish its goals
brown v board of ed
the 1954 Supreme Court ruling that struck down Plessy v. Ferguson and declared segregation and “separate but equal” to be unconstitutional in public education
civil disobedience
an action taken in violation of the letter of the law to demonstrate that the law is unjust
de facto segregation
segregation that results from the private choices of individuals
de jure segregation
segregation that results from government discrimination
direct action
civil rights campaigns that directly confronted segregationist practices through public demonstrations
disenfranchisement
the revocation of someone’s right to vote
grandfather clause
the provision in some southern states that allowed illiterate whites to vote because their ancestors had been able to vote before the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified
Jim crow laws
state and local laws that promoted racial segregation and undermined black voting rights in the south after Reconstruction
literacy tests
tests that required the prospective voter in some states to be able to read a passage of text and answer questions about it; often used as a way to disenfranchise racial or ethnic minorities
plessy v ferguson
the 1896 Supreme Court ruling that allowed “separate but equal” racial segregation under the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
poll tax
annual tax imposed by some states before a person was allowed to vote
reconstruction
the period from 1865 to 1877 during which the governments of Confederate states were reorganized prior to being readmitted to the Union
understanding tests
tests requiring prospective voters in some states to be able to explain the meaning of a passage of text or to answer questions related to citizenship; often used as a way to disenfranchise black voters
white primary
a primary election in which only whites are allowed to vote
comparable worth
a doctrine calling for the same pay for workers whose jobs require the same level of education, responsibility, training, or working conditions
coverture
a legal status of married women in which their separate legal identities were erased
equal rights amendment
the proposed amendment to the Constitution that would have prohibited all discrimination based on sex
glass ceiling
an invisible barrier caused by discrimination that prevents women from rising to the highest levels of an organization—including corporations, governments, academic institutions, and religious organizations
title 9
the section of the U.S. Education Amendments of 1972 that prohibits discrimination in education on the basis of sex
American Indian Movement
the Native American civil rights group responsible for the occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1973
Trail of Tears
the name given to the forced migration of the Cherokees from Georgia to Oklahoma in 1838–1839
chicano
a term adopted by some Mexican American civil rights activists to describe themselves and those like them
hate crime
harassment, bullying, or other criminal acts directed against someone because of bias against that person’s sex, gender, sexual orientation, religion, race, ethnicity, or disability
stonewall inn
a bar in Greenwich Village, New York, where the modern Gay Pride movement began after rioters protested the police treatment of the LGBT community there
balance of power
a situation in which no one nation or region is much more powerful militarily than any other in the world
balance of trade
the relationship between a country’s inflow and outflow of goods
cold war
the period from shortly after World War II until approximately 1989–1990 when advanced industrial democracies divided behind the two superpowers (East: Soviet Union, West: United States) and the fear of nuclear war abounded
diplomacy
the establishment and maintenance of a formal relationship between countries
foreign policy
a government’s goals in dealing with other countries or regions and the strategy used to achieve them
free trade
a policy in which a country allows the unfettered flow of goods and services between itself and other countries
hard power
the use or threat of military power to influence the behavior of another country
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
a cross-national military organization with bases in Belgium and Germany formed to maintain stability in Europe
protectionism
a policy in which a country does not permit other countries to sell goods and services within its borders or charges them very high tariffs (import taxes) to do so
soft power
nonmilitary tools used to influence another country, such as economic sanctions
United Nations
an international organization of nation-states that seeks to promote peace, international relations, and economic and environmental programs
congressional executive agreement
an international agreement that is not a treaty and that is negotiated by the president and approved by a simple majority of the House and Senate
sole executive agreement
an international agreement that is not a treaty and that is negotiated and approved by the president acting alone
treatment
an international agreement entered by the United States that requires presidential negotiation with other nation(s), consent by two-thirds of the Senate, and final ratification by the president
two presidencies thesis
the thesis by Wildavsky that there are two distinct presidencies, one for foreign and one for domestic policy, and that presidents are more successful in foreign than domestic policy
containment
the effort by the United States and Western European allies, begun during the Cold War, to prevent the spread of communism
isolationism
a foreign policy approach that advocates a nation’s staying out of foreign entanglements and keeping to itself
liberal internationalism
a foreign policy approach of becoming proactively engaged in world affairs by cooperating in a community of nations
neoconservatism
the belief that, rather than exercising restraint, the United States should aggressively use its might to promote its values and ideals around the world
neo-isolationism
a policy of distancing the United States from the United Nations and other international organizations, while still participating in the world economy
selective engagement
a policy of retaining a strong military presence and remaining engaged across the world
