The socioecological model

Question 1

The environment forces sociality. True or false?

Answer 1

True: the environment is responsible for the groups animals live in.

Question 2

What is Darwinian feminism?

Answer 2

Although males are often dominant and appear to have control, the requirements of female primates drive the system and males fit in around this

Question 3

Females can be described as ‘bottlenecks of reproduction’. What does this mean?

Answer 3

Reproduction is reliant on the fertility/fecundity of females.

Question 4

There is more ecological pressure on females than on males. Why?

Answer 4

Females have a higher investment in reproduction.

Question 5

What do a) the male and b) the female contribute in reproduction?

Answer 5

a) 1 sperm

b) 1 egg, pregnancy and lactation

Question 6

How do males maximise their reproductive fitness?

Answer 6

By increasing the chance of fertilisation, i.e. searching for females

Question 7

How do females maximise their reproductive success?

Answer 7

By obtaining enough resources from their environment to sustain pregnancy and lactation, i.e. searching for food.

Question 8

a) What do males compete with each other for?

b) What do females compete with each other for?

Answer 8

a) Females.

b) Food.

Question 9

In polyandry there is an offloading of parental investment. Female primates normally have higher parental investment, so why does this happen?

Answer 9

The female must compete with other females for access to males thus she has less investment in caring for offspring. Females behave as males do in polygyny.

Question 10

Females should avoid other females as they are in competition for resources. What are 2 hypotheses for why we see female animals living in groups?

Answer 10

1. Resource defence

2. Predator defence

Question 11

Explain female grouping for resource defence.

Answer 11

The more females there are, the more resources they can defend against other groups and share between themselves. Thus reproductive rate increases with group size.

Question 12

Give a negative of female grouping for resource defence.

Answer 12

When groups become excessively large, intra-group competition outweighs inter-group and reproductive success within the group will be lowered.

Question 13

Explain female grouping for predator defence.

Answer 13

Idea of safety in numbers, the more animals there are the less likely it is they will be eaten.

Question 14

Female grouping for predator defence encourages v. large groups, creating a decrease in reproductive rate due to intra-group competition for resources which is not offset by the gain of group-acquired resources. How then is it perceived as a reproductive strategy?

Answer 14

It increases lifespan: if there are more animals there is less chance they will be eaten, thus they live longer. This gives them more chances to reproduce.

Question 15

It is often assumed that female grouping is defined by a combination of resource and predator defence. How?

Answer 15

Predator defence sets the lower limit of individuals in the group and resource defence sets the upper limit.

Question 16

What are competitive regimes?

Answer 16

Types of interaction between females for resources.

Question 17

What is scramble competition?

Answer 17

Competition for abundant food sources, e.g. grass, leaves etc.

Question 18

What is contest competition?

Answer 18

Competition for rarer food sources, e.g. fruit or prey

Question 19

Within-group scramble competition in smaller groups yields higher per-capita food intake. Why?

Answer 19

An abundance of food is shared between few individuals.

Question 20

Within-group contest competition yields a higher per-capita food intake in which size group?

Answer 20

It depends on the dominance hierarchy.

Question 21

When would there be between-group contest but within-group scramble?

Answer 21

When groups of females fight to monopolise a resource like a leafy tree.

Question 22

When would there be both between and within group contest?

Answer 22

When groups of females fight to monopolise a resource like a fruit tree.

Question 23

With between group competition, which group size ensures a higher per-capita food intake?

Answer 23

Larger groups as they are more likely to win a contest.

Question 24

Once a group has monopolised a resource for which there will be within-group contest competition, what must the dominant female do?

Answer 24

She must make sure she shares the resources with her subordinates so they support her in future contests.

Question 25

At what frequency is there agonism in a) scramble and b) contest competition?

Answer 25

a) rare

b) common

Question 26

At what frequency is there kin support in a) scramble and b) contest competition?

Answer 26

a) rare

b) common

Question 27

At what intensity is there rank stability in a) scramble and b) contest competition?

Answer 27

a) low

b) high

Question 28

What changes group structure during a) scramble and b) contest competition?

Answer 28

a) migration

b) splitting

Question 29

Describe the nature of a group based on scramble competition. Give 3 things.

Answer 29

Non-linear hierarchy, egalitarian and individualistic.

Question 30

Describe the nature of a group based on contest competition. Give 3 things.

Answer 30

Linear hierarchy, authoritarian and nepotistic (relatives favoured)

Question 31

Do males undergo scramble or contest competition? Why?

Answer 31

Contest, because males compete for fertilisations which cannot be shared.

Question 32

What does multiparous mean?

Answer 32

A female has had numerous babies.

Question 33

What does nulliparous mean?

Answer 33

A female has never had a baby before.

Question 34

What does primaparous mean?

Answer 34

A female is having her first baby/has had one baby