Facts and references Flashcards
What is the Latin name for the common chimpanzee?
Pan troglodytes
In what region are chimpanzees found?
Outline their range.
West, Central and East Africa
From Gambia in the west to Uganda in the east, EXCLUDING central Congo where bonobos are found instead
The chimpanzee is highly adaptable. What habitats does it occupy? List 5
Savannah, rainforest, montane forest, swamp forest, dry woodland
What is the chimpanzees diet?
It is an omnivorous frugivore (they will basically eat anything)
Chimpanzees will eat meat. What is its preferred mammal prey?
Western red colobus monkeys
Procolobus badius
What kind of mating system do chimpanzees have?
Polygynandrous
Which is the philopatric sex in chimpanzees?
Males
How do chimpanzees move?
By knuckle-walking
What is the dental formula for platyrrhines? They have 3 premolars, but can have different numbers of premolars.
- 1.3.2
2. 1.3.3
For each quadrant what is the order of teeth in the mouth?
Incisors, canines, premolars, molars
What is the dental formula for catarrhines? We have 2 premolars and 3 molars.
2.1.2.3
What is the genus name for spider monkeys?
Ateles
In what region are spider monkeys found?
Central and South America
What habitat do spider monkeys live in?
Rainforest
What is the diet of spider monkeys?
Frugivorous
What mating system do spider monkeys have?
Polygynandrous
Which sex is philopatric in spider monkeys?
Males
Which three groups of primates are the only species to adopt fission-fusion communities?
Spider monkeys, chimpanzees/bonobos and humans
How do spider monkeys move?
By suspensory locomotion with their prehensile tail
What is the genus name for capuchins?
Cebus
In what region are capuchins found?
Central and South America
What habitat do capuchins occupy?
A range of forest types although they prefer rainforests
What mating system do capuchins have?
Polygynandrous as females often have multiple mates, although polygynous systems have been observed
How do capuchins move?
By quadrapedal locomotion
How many species of macaque are there?
22
What is the Latin name of the Barbary macaque?
Macaca sylvanus
In what region does the Barbary macaque live?
In the Atlas Mountains of Algeria and Morocco and a small population in Gibraltar
What habitat does the Barbary macaque live in? Give 4 examples.
Primarily forests (like cedar), but also grasslands, scrub, rocky ridges
What is the Barbary macaque’s diet?
Omnivorous folivore
Their diet varies with season
What is the mating system of Barbary macaques?
Polygynandrous
What is the locomotory style of Barbary macaques?
Quadrapedalism
How many species of baboon are there? What are they?
5
Olive/Anubis Yellow/Savannah Chacma/Cape Hamadryas Guinea
What is the Latin name for the hamadryas baboon?
Papio hamadryas
Where are hamadryas baboons found?
List the African countries.
List the Middle Eastern countries.
The Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula
Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia
Yemen and Saudi Arabia
What kind of habitats do hamadryas baboons live in? Give 3 examples
Semi-desert, savannah/plains/meadows and rocky cliffs
What is the diet of hamadryas baboons?
Omnivorous
What is the mating system of hamadryas baboons?
Polygynous
Which sex is philopatric in hamadryas baboons?
Males, unlike in other baboons where it is the females
Which sex is philopatric in Barbary macaques?
Females
What is the Latin name for the gelada?
Theropithecus gelada
There are only two countries in the world where you will find geladas. What are they?
Ethiopia and Eritrea
Which national park are geladas found in in Ethiopia?
The Semien Mountains National Park
What habitat do geladas occupy?
The sleep on rocky cliffs and descend into grasslands to feed during the day
What is the mating system of geladas?
Polygynous
As well as anogenital swellings, what other sign is there that a female has come into estrus?
All geladas have a hairless patch on their chests; a ring of red beading develops here (it goes red basically)
In geladas, a male and his harem is called an OMU or one-male-unit. When many OMUs come together what does this form?
A band
As well as OMUs, what other kind of group exists in gelada society?
AMUs or all-male-bands (bachelor bands)
What diet do geladas have?
They are exclusively folivorous, mostly feed on grass
Does the gelada’s diet change based on seasonal availability?
Yes
Geladas are highly specialised feeders. How? Why?
The opposability of their first two digits is the highest of all catarrhines. They also have short/robust phalanges.
Allows them to pick grass blades individually to sort good blades from bad in the dry season. Allows them to dig for tubers.
There are two species of mandrill, genus Mandrillus. What are they?
Mandrills and drills
What is the latin name for the mandrill?
Mandrillus sphinx
In what region of Africa are mandrills found?
Which countries? There are 4.
Central Africa
Parts of (not throughout) Cameroon, Gabon, Guinea, Congo
What habitats are mandrills found in?
Tropical rainforests
Why is it strange that mandrills are found in tropical rainforests?
They are adapted to live on the ground but shelter in the trees at night.
How do mandrills move? Can they climb trees?
Quadrupedal locomotion
Yes
How are mandrills and drills distinguishable?
Mandrills have brightly coloured faces whilst drills’ faces are all black.
What is the mating system of mandrills?
Polygynous
Which sex is philopatric in mandrills?
Females
Is allomothering observed in mandrills?
Yes
Which sex is philopatric in geladas?
Females
What beneficial traits are close social bonds associated with? Give 3.
Lower stress, better health, increased lifespan
Do geladas allomother?
Yes
Who studied geladas?
Dunbar from the 1970s onwards
What kind of diet do mandrills have?
Omnivorous
will eat leaves/fruit/flowers/small vertebrates
What are the two major threats to mandrills?
- Habitat destruction
2. Hunting for bushmeat
Why are mandrills easily located by hunters?
Due to their loud calls
What is the Latin name for the Hanuman langur monkey?
Semnopithecus entellus
What other common name is there for the Hanuman langur?
Gray langur
In what region is the Hanuman langur found in?
Which countries is it found in? There are 7.
Southern Asia
Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka
What kind of habitats are langurs found in?
A wide range;
Arid scrubland to tropical rainforest to urban areas
Name a city in India where langurs live in close proximity with humans?
Jodhpur, India
What is the mating system of langurs?
Polgynous or polygynandrous
In which part of India are langurs a) polygynous and b) polgynandrous? Why?
a) Southern India; lack of seasonality + provisioning from locals means females are desynchronised from the environment, males can monopolise
b) Northern India; seasonality means females are synchronised to the environment, males cannot monopolise
Which sex is philopatric in langurs?
Females
Do langurs display allomothering?
Yes
How do langurs move?
Quadrupedal locomotion
Do langurs spend more time on the ground or in the trees?
On the ground, 80% of their time. They use trees for sleeping.
What is the diet of hanuman langurs?
They are folivorous
although they have been found to eat fruits/flowers/gum/bark etc.
How many a) genera and b) species are there in the subfamily Callitrichinae?
a) 4
b) 32
Where are the Callitrichinae found?
In Central and South America
What habitat do the Callitrichinae occupy?
Tropical rainforests
Do the Callitrichinae have prehensile tails?
No
Callitrichids are quadrupedal. Why does their morphology suggest otherwise?
Their forelimbs are shorter than their hindlimbs.
This is characteristic of primates that locomote using vertical clinging and leaping.
Do callitrichids have opposable thumbs and big toes?
No
Do callitichids have nails like other primates?
No, they have claws
What di callitrichids use their claws for?
Grip and to dig into tree bark
What are the mating systems observed in callitrichids?
Mostly polyandry (they are a model for polyandry), but depending on species can be monogamous
Do males care for the young in callitrichids?
Yes; he carries the infants and only transfers them back to their mother long enough for them to nurse.
Basically everyone looks after the babies except the mother.
What is the diet of callitrichids?
Primarily insectivorous, although fruits/seeds/gum are frequently eaten
What is the Latin name for Geoffroy’s tamarin?
Saguinus geoffroyi
What is the geographic range of Geoffroy’s tamarin? What is unique about this?
South-western Costa Rica to North-western Colombia
It is the only callitrichid to extend as far north as Costa Rica from South America
In what habitat does Geoffroy’s tamarin live?
Densely-forested areas, it avoids open forest areas
What is the mating system of Geoffroy’s tamarin?
Polyandry
Geoffroy’s tamarin is territorial. How do we know this?
They visit the borders of their range and scent mark each day
Geoffroy’s tamarin is largely insectivorous. What are their favourite insects?
Grasshoppers and cicadas
Although Geoffroy’s tamarin is insectivorous, what does the large proportion of their does consist of?
Fruit
What does Geoffroy’s tamarin when fruits become seasonally scarce?
Nectar
There are two species of gorilla. What are they?
The Western and Eastern gorillas
What is another common name for the Western gorilla?
The lowland gorilla
In what region is the western gorilla found?
In which countries? There are 8.
West and Central Africa
Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Angola, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo and possibly Democratic Republic of Congo
What is the Latin name of the western gorilla?
Gorilla gorilla
How many subspecies of the western gorilla are there?
What are they and where are they found?
2
Gorilla gorilla, Cameroon southwards
Gorilla gorilla diehli, found in a small part of the Nigerian/Cameroonian border
What habitat does the western gorilla occupy?
Tropical secondary forest where the open canopy provides lots of light
What visual differences are there between western and eastern gorillas? List 2.
Western gorillas are slightly more brown/grey in colour
Western gorillas are slightly smaller than eastern in body size, as well as having smaller teeth and jaws
The arm span of gorillas is longer than their standing height. True or false?
True.
Gorillas are aggressive. True or false?
False, they are generally peaceful and shy unless disturbed
What is the aggressive behaviour of male gorillas?
Charging; often the male will charge an intruder but rush past instead of colliding, and then will charge again
What is the mating system of gorillas?
Generally polygynous, although polgynandrous and AMUs are observed.
Are gorillas territorial?
Not really, ranges of neighbouring groups often overlap.
Do gorillas build nests?
Yes
What is the diet of gorillas? What is their preferred food?
Folivorous
Juicy-stemmed plants (but will also consume leaves, berries, flowers, roots, bark and sometimes small invertebrates)
What are the main threats to gorillas? List 2.
- Hunting for skins and meat
- Capture for zoos
- Habitat destruction, particularly for eastern gorillas
How do gorillas move?
Knuckle-walking, although tree climbing is observed
What is the Latin name for the Eastern Gorilla?
Gorilla beringei
What is another common name for the eastern gorilla?
Mountain gorilla
Where are eastern gorillas found? Be specific.
In the Virunga volcanoes that separate Democratic Republic of Congo from Rwanda.
In what habitat are eastern gorillas found?
Montane cloud forest
Which species of gibbon are found in Khao Yai, Thailand (the ones Volker studied)?
Lar gibbons
What is the Latin name for the lar gibbon?
Hylobates lar
What is another common name for the lar gibbon?
White-handed gibbon
In what region are lar gibbons found?
Which countries are they found in? There are 5.
Southeast Asia
Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand
Which habitat are lar gibbons found in?
Forests, various types e.g. bamboo, evergreen, swamp etc.
Lar gibbons are dichromatic according to sex. True or false?
False; dichromatism is independent of sex
What colours are lar gibbons?
Either black/brown or white/cream
How do lar gibbons move?
By brachiation, hand-over-hand swinging.
Gibbons have tails. True or false?
False
Gibbons have very long forelimbs. True or false?
True
What diet do gibbons have?
They are frugivorous (although they will also eat flowers and insects)
They are very picky when eating fruits; fruits are tested and either accepted or rejected based on ripeness
What are the 2 major threats to gibbons?
- The illegal pet trade (particularly in Thailand)
2. Habitat loss
How many subspecies of chimpanzee are there? What are they?
4
P. t. troglodytes, the Central chimpanzee
P. t. verus, the Western chimpanzee
P. t. ellioti/vellerosus, the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee
P.t. schweinfurthii, the Eastern chimpanzee
Which countries is the Central chimpanzee found in? There are 6.
Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Which countries is the Western chimpanzee found in? There are 8.
Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast and Ghana
Which countries is the Eastern chimpanzee found in? There are 8
Central African Republic, South Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia
Where is Gombe Stream National Park where Goodall studied chimpanzees?
Tanzania
What is the Latin name for the bonobo?
Pan paniscus
What is another common name for the bonobo?
The pygmy chimpanzee
Where is the bonobo found?
In the Democratic Republic of Congo, specifically in the Congo basin
Which habitat do bonobos occupy?
Rainforest
What physical differences are there between chimpanzees and bonobos? List 2 things.
Bonobos have longer hair, hairy cheeks and foreheads (whereas chimp faces are hairless so their faces look bigger)
Exposed bonobo skin is always darkly coloured whereas chimps have lighter skin, esp. in younger years
Which is the philopatric sex in the bonobo? Why is this odd?
Males, yet it is the females that show social bonding
What is the diet of the bonobo?
Omnivorous frugivore
Is allomothering common in Barbary macaques?
Yes
What is the social structure of hamadyras baboons?
What are clans?
What are bands?
What are troops?
Two or three OMUs (harems) come together to form clans. Clans leaders are related.
Clans come together to form bands. Band leaders are generally not related.
Troops contain several bands that share the same feeding/water/sleeping sites.
Are male hamadryas baboons aggressive?
Extremely; they aggressively herd females and juveniles within their OMU and enforce strict discipline. Females are often forcefully transferred between clans. Juveniles are prevented from playing with like-age individuals in other bands.
How many members are there in the genus Theropithecus?
1, only the gelada
What is the Latin name for the Japanese macaque?
Macaca fuscata
There are two species of orang-utan. What are they?
The Bornean and Sumatran orangutans
What is the Latin name for the Bornean orangutan?
Pongo pygmaeus
What is the Latin name for the Sumatran orangutan?
Pongo abelii
Who described the LRC hypothesis as a way of altering offspring sex ratio?
Van Schaik and Hrdy, 1991
Who proposed the Trivers-Willard hypothesis as a way of altering offspring sex ratio?
Trivers and Willard, 1973
Who proposed that females should attempt to limit the production of daughters by other females when females are the philopatric sex?
Silk et al., 1981
Silk et al., 1981:
Which primates did the authors study?
Bonnet macaques
What is the Latin name for bonnet macaques?
Macaca radiata
Where are bonnet macaques found?
The Western Ghat mountains in India
Which habitats do bonnet macaques occupy?
Forest, can be either evergreen high forest or deciduous forest
Which sex is philopatric in bonnet macaques? Why is this strange?
Females, yet males also form unique social bonds
What is the mating system of bonnet macaques?
Polygynandrous
How do bonnet macaques move?
Quadrupedal locomotion
What kind of diet do bonnet macaques eat?
They are omnivores, but often they depend on food left by humans e.g. near urban settlement, from temples
Silk et al., 1981;
What did the authors find about the survival of infants produced by low ranking females?
These infants had a smaller probability of survival due to aggression from higher ranking females
Silk et al., 1981;
Females appear to respond selectively towards the offspring of other females and their rank. Why?
Because it may affect the survival of their own infants
Silk et al., 1981;
Why would high ranking females reduce the production of daughters by subordinates?
Because daughters are philopatric and will compete for resources with their own offspring
Silk et al., 1981;
What would you expect in the offspring sex ratio among lower ranking females if this hypothesis was correct?
A male-biased sex ratio in low ranking females offspring, although there was no evidence of this
Who described the polygyny threshold model?
Orian, 1969
Orian, 1969;
What does the model depend on?
Female choice, as polygyny is always advantageous to males
Orian, 1969;
What does the model assume about the environment?
It is variable and reproductive success correlates to variability
Polygyny only expected to evolve under these conditions
What can you link the polygyny threshold model to?
The Good Parent Process (Hoelzer, 1989)
Who studied mating interference?
Sommer, 1989
Sommer, 1989;
What is mating interference?
When non-mating individuals harass the copulation of others.
Sommer, 1989;
Which primate did the author study interference in?
Hanuman langurs
Sommer, 1989;
What did the author observe?
Other females trying to pull the way off, biting the male and chasing the female away
Sommer, 1989;
What percentage of 346 interactions were harassed by members of all age classes except infants?
80.6%
Sommer, 1989;
Higher ranking females harassed other higher ranking females more. True or false?
False; they harassed lower ranking females more
Sommer, 1989;
Why do females interfere with the copulation of others?
To limit the number of births of others and reduce possible future resource competition.
To ensure the male is not depleted when they want to mate.
Sommer, 1989;
Why do immatures interfere with the copulation of their mothers?
To limit the births of rival siblings
Sommer, 1989;
Why do other females interfere with the copulation of already-pregnant females?
What percentage of copulation with an already-pregnant female was disturbed?
Because they are ‘wasting sperm’
75%
Bonnet macaque males show unique social bonds. Why is it thought this is the case?
Females DO NOT exhibit sexual swellings, thus this may facilitate social cohesion.
Who studied sexual swellings?
Highman et al., 2008
Highman et al., 2008;
What did the authors find about the cause of sexual swellings?
They are hormone-dependent
Highman et al., 2008;
What does oestrogen do?
Stimulates swelling, corresponds to the follicular stage
What is the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle?
When the follicle is maturing, ends in ovulation
Highman et al., 2008;
What does progesterone do?
Inhibits swelling, corresponds to the luteal phase
What is the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?
Basically the breakdown of the corpus luteum if an egg goes unfertilised
Highman et al., 2008;
Which group exhibits the largest sexual swellings? Why?
Nulliparous catarrhine females
Swelling size indicates cycle number, largest swellings arise from successive cycles undisturbed by conceiving
Highman et al., 2008;
Do females conceiving regularly exhibit sexual swellings?
Rarely
Who studied gibbons in Khao Yai, Thailand?
Sommer and Reichard, 2000
Sommer and Reichard, 2000;
What did they find about group ranges?
They overlap
Sommer and Reichard, 2000;
Individuals were monogamous with the same individual throughout life. True or false?
False; partner changes or ‘serial monogamy’ was observed
Sommer and Reichard, 2000;
What percentage of groups were polyandrous or polgynandrous?
25%
Sommer and Reichard, 2000;
Why do the authors think females performed EPCs?
To confuse paternity and prevent infanticide
Sommer and Reichard, 2000;
Why do the authors think the Female Great Call exists? What about the Male Coda?
To advertise her quality to other males
To warn other males she is already spoken for
Sommer and Reichard, 2000;
What two factors do the authors think the intensity of the Great Call is correlated to?
Female attractiveness (fitness-dependent trait?)
Male resource-holding capability
Sommer and Reichard, 2000;
What creates the high relatedness between groups?
Short dispersal distance and EPCs
Who looked at colouration in mandrills?
Setchell, 2005
Setchell, 2005:
What did the author find about colouration?
Brightly coloured males received more attention from females and higher mating success
Setchell, 2005:
What effect did colour have on female grooming?
Females groomed the brightest male only
Setchell, 2005:
Where did the study take place?
Gabon
Setchell, 2005:
What did the author find between colour and dominance rank?
Colour had more influence on female behaviour than dominance rank
Setchell, 2005:
An alpha male fell in rank without loss of colouration. Did the females still mate with him?
Yes
Who outlined criteria for the influence of mate choice on communication?
Snowdon, 2004
Snowdon, 2004;
What are the criteria for the influence of mate choice in communication? There are 5.
- Signals are sexually dimorphic
- Variation in signal occurs between same-sex social partners
- Discrimination and preference occurs between opposite-sex social partners
- Expression of preference occurs in the context of reproduction
- Outcomes of preference based on signal must relate to reproductive success
Which species did Sarah (Blaffer) Hrdy begin her work in and where? What did she do?
Hanuman langurs at Mount Abu in Rajasthan, India
Infanticide was thought to be because of overcrowding, she realised it was to do with sexual selection
Which species did Jane Goodall study and where?
Common chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania
Which species did Dian Fossey study and where?
Eastern (mountain) gorillas in Virunga National Park, Rwanda
Which species did Birutė Galdikas study and where?
Orangutans in Tanjung Puting Reserve, Borneo
What were the Trimates? Who did it consist of?
Three female primatologists handpicked by Louis Leakey to study the great apes
Jane Goodall
Dian Fossey
Birutė Galdikas
Who was Louis Leakey?
A Kenyan palaeoanthropologist famous for his work on human evolution in African
Why did Leakey establish the Trimates?
He believed studying the great apes in their natural habitats would provide clues about evolution
Who is Robin Dunbar?
An anthropologist specialising in primate behaviour and psychology
What year did Konrad Lorenz propose his theory on aggression?
1963 in his book ‘On Aggression’
Which book detailed this treatment of orphaned baby apes in places like the Congo and Cameroon?
Eating Apes by Peterson, 2003
Who measured annual loss from the wild using sanctuary intake of P. t. vellerosus orphans in Cameroon and Nigeria?
Hughes et al., 2011
Who founded the Great Ape Project and when?
Peter Singer and Paola Cavalieri, 1993
What is the Amboseli Baboon Research Project (ABRP)?
One of the world’s longest-running studies on wild primates, focusing on the savannah baboon
What is the wild name for the savannah baboon?
Papio cynocephalus
Where is the ABRP?
In Amboseli National Park in Kenya
Who founded the ABRP and when?
Jeanne and Stuart Altmann, 1971
Who introduced the thinking of Machiavelli into primatology and when? How?
Frans de Waal, 1975
A 6-year study on captive chimpanzees in Arnhem Zoo, the Netherlands
Frans de Waal was insistent that his primates displayed emotion and intention, inspiring the theme of primate cognition which now revolves around the themes of…
Cooperation, altruism and fairness
Who studied fertility suppression in common marmosets?
Abbott, 1984
What is the Latin name for the common marmoset?
Callitrichix jacchus jacchus
Abbott, 1984;
The study focused on lab families. What percentage of family groups prevented daughters from ovulating completely?
50%
Abbott, 1984;
How were daughters prevented from ovulating?
Hypothalamic inhibition of LHRH (luteinising hormone-releasing hormone), producing inadequate gonadotrophin secretion
Abbott, 1984;
In some families, one daughter was allowed to ovulate. Why?
She may have represented the next breeding female and no longer saw the mother as an inhibitory influence
Abbott, 1984;
Subordinate and juvenile males were also prevented from mating, often resulting in a monogamous breeding system. How?
They were physically restrained by other males
Who conducted recent research on Theory of Mind in chimpanzees?
Felix Warneken
What did Felix Warneken find? Give 2 things.
Chimpanzees can tell whether a researcher wishes to retrieve a dropped object and pick it up for them.
Chimpanzees will only pick up the object if it was dropped accidentally, not if it was dropped on purpose in which case they ignore it.
Shows theory of mind, they can understand the researcher’s intentions
Who proposed the idea of kin selection in primatology?
William Donald Hamilton, 1964
Who proposed the idea of reciprocity in primatology?
Rpbert Trivers, 1971
Who proposed the Handicap Principle?
Amotz Zahavi, 1975
Cercopithecines have flat molars for grinding seeds. True or false?
True
COLOBINES DO NOT
Frugivorous primates have larger home ranges and longer day ranges than folivorous. Why?
Because they have more energy
Under the Local Resource Enhancement hypothesis, mothers bias the sex ratio of their offspring towards…
The philopatric sex
Reproductive seasonality only occurs in species with highly specialised diets. True or false?
False
What is the problem with using group selection to explain altruism?
Selfish primates (cheaters) would outcompete altruistic ones
In which species were ‘proto-culture’ and traditions first observed?
Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)
Second-order mental representation can be described as…
Mind-reading
Give two advantages to using primates as models for behavioural ecology.
- Can recognise individuals
2. Can easily categorise behaviours
Give two disadvantages to using primates as models for behavioural ecology.
- Human presence alters their behaviour
2. Primates are long-lived so cannot measure their lifetime repro success in a single discrete field study
List 4 anatomical features that indicate primate ecology.
- Limb/hand structure (presence/absence of thumb)
- Tail morphology (prehensile or vestigial)
- Digestive apparatus (cheek pouches, sacculated stomachs)
- Eye morphology (size, tapetum)
Give an example of a primate with a vestigial tail.
Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus)
List 4 characteristics that make certain males more attractive to females.
- Fitness-dependent traits
- Physical size
- Territory quality
- Dominance rank
Basically traits that show heritable quality and competitive ability
When is dominance rank particularly influential in female choice? Give an example.
Is dispersing species, as males have to move their way up the hierarchy.
Most baboon species where females are philopatric
What are the costs of group living? Give 4 examples.
- More members = more resource competition
- In one-male multi female groups, sperm becomes depleted
- Polygynandrous groups = higher chance of infanticide
- Larger groups are easier for predators to detect
What are the benefits of group living?
- Predator defence
- Allies in resource acquisition in the philopatric sex
- Allomothering
- More potential mates in polygynandrous societies (less individuals excluded from mating)
How can being a dominant female result in higher reproductive success? List 3 reasons.
- More resources to sustain gestation/lactation
- More resources causes younger age of menarchy
- Control resources so can channel them into offspring (Trivers-Willard hyp, 1973)
What are the 3 hypotheses for concealed ovulation?
- Reduced infanticide
- Increased paternal investment
- Social-bonding hypothesis
Explain the increased paternal investment hypothesis for concealed ovulation
If male cannot tell when a female is ovulating he will stay with her to mate throughout hr cycle
Explain the social bonding hypothesis for concealed ovulation
If females are receptive throughout their cycle then it reduces male-male aggression common in species with defined breeding seasons
What are the two hypotheses for why male primates will be friendly towards infants?
- Paternal care
2. Agonistic buffering
Explain the paternal care hypothesis for male behaviour towards infants
Paternity uncertainty means the infant might be theirs, will benefit from their care
Explain the agonistic buffering hypothesis for male behaviour towards infants. Give two species in which this has been observed (there are loads).
Males will pick up a baby to prevent another male attacking them, males will not risk hurting babies due to paternity uncertainty.
Geladas (Theropithecus gelada) Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus)
Name 4 factors that influence coalition formation
- Relatedness, e.g. Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) against infanticide
- Social bonding, e.g. grooming in capuchins (genus Cebus)
- Sexual bonding, e.g. female bonobos (Pan paniscus)
- Resource acquisition, e.g. non-related male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
In which taxa is infanticide committed by females?
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and Callitrichids (family Callitrichinae)
What are the 4 methods of communication in primates?
- Olfactory
- Visual
- Vocal
- Behavioural
List 4 observations of tool use in chimpanzees, with the location and tool used.
- Fishing stick in Gombe, Tanzania
- Hammer and anvil, Nimba Mountains, Guinea
- Spears, Senegal
- Puncturing stick, Democratic Republic of Congo
Why are females integral to evolution of tool usage?
Younger animals pick up techniques more quickly and they spend the most time with their mothers
What kinds of tools have capuchins been seen using?
Hammer and anvil to crush seeds/nuts
Digging stones
What kind of tools have orang-utans been seen using?
Sticks to measure water depth
Leaf umbrellas
Spears for fishing
Stones to open fruits
Give 4 abilities of primates that show they have theory of mind.
- Imitation
- Deception
- Manipulation
- Teaching
List things you are going to remember in the exam.
- To UNDERLINE LATIN NAMES
- That some MQCs have NO ANSWERS, he is trying to catch you out
- Shamelessly embellish all answers with any relevant facts that you know
Where did Richard Wrangham begin his career?
At Gombe Stream under Jane Goodall
What is inclusive fitness?
The ego’s reproductive output plus that of relatives
Inclusive fitness can underlie the social bonding of a group. How?
Because related individuals are favoured, as we see in the philopatric sex
Which researcher has studied sexual relationships among female bonobos?
Amy Parish
Physical stress can affect reproductive output. Give 2 examples of this.
- Social/sexual relationships maximise repro output in bonobo females (Pan paniscus)
- Harassment from new harem residents in langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) can cause spontaneous abortion in females
What evidence is there that sexual relationships have important social connotations in bonobos, outside of the reproductive context? Compare them to chimpanzees.
In bonobos:
- Swellings develop earlier
- A higher proportion of the cycle is spent in the tumescent state
- Swellings reappear more quickly after parturition
What are the 3 benefits of coalition formation in bonobo females (Pan paniscus)?
- Increased access to resources
- Protection from male aggression
- Increased repro output from stress relief
What is the Latin name of the western red colobus monkey, preferred food of the chimpanzee?
Procolobus badius
What genus do tarsiers belong to?
Tarsius
What is the genus name for the owl/night monkey?
Aotus
What is the name for the saddleback tamarin?
Saguinus fuscicollis
What genus do vervet monkeys belong to?
Chlorocebus
What is the Latin name for the empowered tamarin?
Saguinus imperator
What did Machiavelli write about in The Prince (sixteenth century)?
Immoral behaviour like dishonesty and infant killing in politics
What does ‘Machiavellian’ mean?
Something that implies deceit, deviousness and realpolitik
Machiavellian intelligence requires diplomacy and deception to further the self
