The sociocultural approach

Question 1

Social identity theory

Answer 1

• social identity theory argues that a person has not just one “personal self”, but rather several social selves that correspond to group membership
• according to the theory, we need to understand who we are and know our value in social contexts. this is why we categorise ourselves in terms of group membership
• so when an individual describes himself as a male, Australian, a student and a surfer, he refers to his social identities
• if the same person also said he played on the rugby team that won the last game, we will know that he can boost his self esteem through both his personal achievement but also through affiliation with this successful team

Tajfel rejected earlier psychological theories that claimed competition and conflict are necessary for intergroup rivalry to occur. instead, he wanted to find the minimal level necessary for some kind of group identification and subsequent prejudice and discrimination.

• sometimes our social selves can become more salient (obvious)- that is, we can become more aware of that facet of identity. Social Identity Theory predicts that when our social identities become salient, it will have an influence on our behaviour.

mental processes in Social Identity Theory

• the minimal groups paradigm formed the basis of Tajfel and Turners (1979) social identity theory which identifies three mental processes that are important for people to develop their social identity
  1. social categorisation

the first is social categorisation: the tendency to divide items and people into groups in order to better understand them- when this is done the similarities and differences become more radicalised (exaggerated)

• this categorisation gives rise to in groups (us) and out groups (them). Tajfel argues that even when people are randomly assigned to a group they automatically think of that group as their in group (us) and others as an out group (them)
• Tajfel found that when people are randomly assigned to a group- they see themselves as being similar in attitude and behaviour, and this is apparently enough for a bond to be formed among group members
  1. social identification

this has emotional significance for us as our self esteem relies on our group membership

• once divided into the in group and the out group, self esteem is maintained by social comparison- the benefits of belonging to the in group rather than the out group

1. social comparison

Because our group identity is tied up with our self esteem we compare our group favourably with others and so it becomes the “in group” while others are the “out group” this can lead to negative stereotyping of the out group but this is not always the case, and therefore does not demonstrate a direct connection between social identity theory and prejudice and discrimination

Question 2

Chen et al (SIT) (Cultural dimensions)

Answer 2

The aim of the study was to investigate the role of Confucian Work Dynamism (Long-term orientation) on an individual’s buying habits.

The sample was made up of 149 bi-cultural participants from a Singaporean university. The study was conducted online. The participants were randomly assigned to conditions.

First, the participants were primed in order to make either their Singaporean or their American identity more salient - that is, to make them more aware of that part of their identity. This was done by first showing them a collage of 12 photos that were emblematic of the culture. The images included famous buildings, brand names, the flag, and celebrities. After looking at the collage they were then asked to write down as many of the items as they could remember.

After completing the priming task, the participants were given a shopping scenario to buy a novel online. They were told the standard delivery cost was 2.99 Singaporean dollars. They were then told that it would take five business days to receive the delivery, but that they could pay extra to get the book in one day. Participants were asked how much they were willing to pay to receive the book in one day.

Finally, the participants were asked to list the first three politicians that came to mind.

People whose Western cultural values were made more salient through priming placed a higher value on immediate consumption than the people whose Eastern cultural values were made salient. It appears that Confucian Work Dynamism played a role in their online shopping behavior.

In both cases, the participants listed politicians that were relevant to the culture that they had been primed for. This indicates that the priming had remained throughout the study and should discount individual differences between the groups.

Evaluation:

The final test on politicians allowed the researchers to determine that the priming had, in fact, been successful and most likely affected the participants’ decisions.

The fact that the study took place in Singapore may be a confounding variable. In the original study, the influence on the American primed group was less significant than the Singaporean primed group.

The study was naturalistic; that is, the scenario was done online and this is how most of the students would purchase a book.

However, since the study was done online, this means that it is difficult to control variables - such as potential help from others or other distracters in the environment.

The study is highly standardized and could be replicated in order to establish thereliabilityof the findings.

Question 3

Chen et al (Link to SIT)

Answer 3

Link to social identity theory:

• more salient to one culture meant that they would self-identify to that culture more than the other, and therefore categorise themselves with that culture, therefore adopt the behaviours of that culture.

Question 4

Chen et al (link to cultural dimensions)

Answer 4

the priming to make them more salient of either their American or Singaporean culture meant that they internalised that specific culture, the study shows how long term and short term orientation varies from different cultures (individualistic vs collectivistic)

Question 5

Tajfel (SIT)

Answer 5

Aim: To investigate if intergroup discrimination would occur based on group categorization, even without prior prejudice or competition.

Procedure:
A sample of 48 British schoolboys (ages 14–15) rated abstract paintings by Klee and Kandinsky without knowing the artists. They were then randomly assigned to groups supposedly based on their painting preferences. The boys allocated points to other participants using two systems:
1. Points totaled 15, so increasing one boy’s points reduced the other’s.
2. A system where maximizing one group’s points reduced the points of the other group.

Findings:
Boys favored their in-group by awarding more points, even at the cost of fewer total points for their group. They prioritized maximizing the difference between in-group and out-group scores over maximizing their own group’s total points.

Conclusion:
The study demonstrated in-group favoritism and intergroup discrimination based on arbitrary groupings, showing that a “minimal group” is sufficient for such behavior. This challenged the idea that competition is necessary for prejudice to occur.

Evaluation:
- High control minimized confounding variables and allowed replication for reliability.
- Low ecological validity due to the artificial task.
- Boys may have shown demand characteristics or perceived the task as competitive.
- Sampling bias limits generalizability beyond British schoolboys.

Question 6

Tajfel et al link to SIT

Answer 6

This study directly supports Social Identity Theory (SIT), which posits that individuals categorize themselves and others into groups, and that being part of an in-group naturally fosters in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. Tajfel’s experiment demonstrated that even when the groups were arbitrary and meaningless, participants still showed clear signs of in-group loyalty and out-group bias. This shows that minimal group distinctions are sufficient to establish a sense of social identity and lead to intergroup discrimination.

Question 7

SIT holistic evaluation

Answer 7

Social Identity Theory (SIT) provides a robust explanation of how individuals derive part of their self-concept from group memberships, leading to predictable patterns of ingroup favoritism and outgroup discrimination. By integrating cognitive processes like categorization and social comparison, SIT offers a psychologically rich framework for understanding real-world issues such as prejudice, nationalism, and stereotyping.

However, a major limitation is its inability to fully explain the intensity or escalation of intergroup conflict. SIT often needs to be supplemented by other theories, such as Realistic Conflict Theory, to account for conflicts driven by competition over resources or influenced by historical and cultural contexts. This limits its predictive power and highlights the importance of using a multi-theoretical approach when analyzing complex social behavior.

Question 8

Social cognitive theory

Answer 8

Social cognitive theory was developed mainly by Albert Bandura and suggests that behaviour is learned through observation and from the environment through the process of modelling and reinforcement- in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior.

The basic idea this theory provides is that we do not need to experience everything personally in order to learn. We can learn through observation. e.g. if I see that someone jumps up in pain after sitting on a bench in a park on a sunny day, I know that the bench is hot, and I wont sit on it. I don’t need to experience the pain myself to avoid sitting on it.

Social cognitive theory was developed by Bandura (1986) from his earlier theories of social learning (1961-77) and self-efficacy (1977)

Self efficacy is the expectation of personal success in a task, based on the view that one is in control of one’s actions and abilities.

Both of these are incorporated into SCT, which is a comprehensive theory of how humans act as agents and through their thoughts, beliefs and actions affect and are affected by their own environments and social systems. This process is called reciprocal determinism.

Modelling involves learning through the observation of other people, which may lead to imitation if the behaviour is to be imitated leads to desirable consequences.

Sometimes the model is trying to have a direct affect on the learner.

Unlike some learning that we do, we do not need positive reinforcement- that is, a reward- to continue the behaviour. The fact that the model was rewarded or punished for a behaviour, is enough for us. This is what Bandura calls vicarious reinforcement.

Bandura recognised that there are certain conditions necessary for social learning to occur:

• Attention: in order to learn, observers must attend to the modelled behaviour.
• Retention: in order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must be able to remember features of behaviour
• Motivation: in order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must want to reproduce it and expect a certain outcome from the behaviour
• Potential: in order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must physically and/or mentally be able to carry out the behaviour
• Consistency: if the model behaves in a way that is consistent across situation- for example, always being brave- then the observer will be more likely to imitate the model than if the model behaves in different ways depending on the situation
• Identification with the model: there os a tendency to imitate models who are like us (in terms of age and gender)
• Liking the model: warm and friendly models are more likely to be imitated than cold, uncaring models

The role of self-efficacy

• finally, social cognitive theory argues that learning is most likely to occur if the observer has high self-efficacy
• self-efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to succeed accomplishing a task. Bandura and other researchers have found individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to believe they can master challenging problems and they can recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments
• therefore, self efficacy plays a central role in whether a learner will imitate the behaviour of a model. Those who have low levels of self-efficacy will fear failure and are less likely to attempt imitating the behaviour of the model

4 factors that result in self-efficacy:

• performance accomplishments (how successful we have been in the past)
• vicarious experience (watching other people persist in challenging tasks and experience success)
• verbal persuasion (other peoples encouragement)
• physiological arousal

Reciprocal determinism

• Bandura saw behaviour, internal personal factors and environmental influences as all interacting to affect one another
• For example, our preferences for doing certain sports or activities are based on our thoughts and feelings about how we will perform and the environment

Factors affecting social cognitive theory

• the model stands out in contrast to other models
• the models behaviour must be consistent
• the model is liked and respected by the observer
• the observer perceives a similarity between him/herself and the model
• the models behaviour is reinforced

Question 9

Bandura, Ross and Ross (SCT)

Answer 9

Aim:

To investigate whether children imitate aggressive behavior observed in adult models and whether this varies by the model’s gender or the child’s gender.

Procedure:

• 72 children (36 boys, 36 girls) aged 37-69 months participated.
• Children were pre-tested for baseline aggression using 5-point scales, and groups were matched for similar aggression levels.
• Three conditions: aggressive model, non-aggressive model, and control (no model).
• Children observed same-sex or opposite-sex adult models either behaving aggressively (hitting and verbally abusing a Bobo doll) or non-aggressively (playing quietly).
• After mild frustration (denial of attractive toys), children entered a room with aggressive and non-aggressive toys, where their behavior was observed for 20 minutes through a one-way mirror.

Findings:

• Children exposed to aggressive models exhibited more aggressive acts than those in non-aggressive or control conditions.
• Boys were more aggressive than girls overall.
• Boys imitated male models more, while girls showed more physical aggression with male models but more verbal aggression with female models.

Conclusion:

Aggression can be learned through observation and imitation, influenced by the gender of both the model and the child.

Evaluation:
Good control of variables:
The study matched children for aggression levels before testing, making it more reliable as differences in behavior were likely due to the model rather than individual traits.

Short-term focus:
The study only measured immediate aggression and didn’t assess whether the behavior lasted over time, limiting its real-world relevance.

Question 10

Bandura et al link to SCT

Answer 10

The findings of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment support Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), showing that children learn behaviors through observation and imitation. The study demonstrates observational learning, with children mimicking aggressive actions modeled by adults. The preference for same-sex models aligns with SCT’s idea that individuals choose role models based on similarity. Cognitive factors, such as attention and retention, are key in how children replicated specific aggressive acts. Additionally, the experiment highlights SCT’s concept of reciprocal determinism, where the environment, personal factors, and behavior interact to influence learning.

Question 11

Joy Kimball and Zabrach SCT

Answer 11

Aim:

To investigate the impact of the introduction of television on children’s aggressive behavior in a natural environment.

Procedure:

1. The study was conducted in three towns in British Columbia, Canada:
   
   • Notel: No television in 1973; introduced a single Canadian channel by 1975.
   • Unitel and Multitel: These towns already had television but received the new channel in 1975.
2. Data collection methods:
   
   • Observations of physical and verbal aggression on playgrounds, ensuring inter-rater reliability.
   • Ratings of aggression by teachers and peers.
   • Surveys on children’s TV viewing habits and preferences.
3. The sample included 120 children, with informed consent obtained from parents.

Findings:

1. Aggression increased significantly in Notel after television was introduced (1973–1975).
2. The aggression levels in Unitel and Multitel showed no significant changes during the same period.
3. Boys were generally more physically aggressive than girls.
4. Children’s favorite shows showed no clear link between the content viewed and levels of aggression.
5. Researchers attributed the increase in aggression in Notel to heightened arousal due to the novelty of television exposure.

Conclusion:

The introduction of television correlated with increased aggressive behavior in children, particularly in a previously TV-free environment. The findings highlight the potential social and psychological effects of media exposure.

Evaluation:

1. Strengths:
   
   • Natural experiment: High ecological validity, as the study took place in a real-world setting.
   • Longitudinal design: Allowed researchers to track changes over time.
   • Triangulation of methods: Used observations, teacher/peer ratings, and surveys to gather comprehensive data.
   • Inter-rater reliability: Increased the objectivity of behavioral observations.
2. Limitations:
   
   • Lack of control over extraneous variables: Other factors (e.g., socioeconomic changes, peer influences) could have influenced aggression.
   • Cultural bias: Conducted in a specific region of Canada, limiting generalizability.
   • Ethical concerns: Observing aggression in children might have raised issues of informed consent and psychological harm.
   • Correlation, not causation: Cannot definitively establish that television caused the increase in aggression.

Question 12

Joy Kimball and Zabrach link to SCT

Answer 12

Social Cognitive Theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the role of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in behavior. According to SCT:

• Children learn behaviors by observing role models (e.g., characters on television).
• Aggression could increase due to imitation of aggressive behaviors displayed on TV.
• Novelty of television in Notel may have heightened arousal, increasing susceptibility to aggressive modeling.
• The findings align with Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment, where children imitated aggressive behaviors observed in a model.

Question 13

SCT Holistic evaluation

Answer 13

Comprehensive Approach:
SCT offers a well-rounded understanding of human behavior by integrating cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors through the concept of reciprocal determinism. This dynamic interaction makes the theory highly adaptable and applicable across various real-world contexts, from education to health interventions.

Overemphasis on Cognition:
SCT is often critiqued for placing too much focus on cognitive processes like self-efficacy, while underrepresenting emotional, unconscious, and biological influences. This can lead to an incomplete picture of human behavior, especially in emotionally driven or instinctive responses.

Question 14

Stereotyping

Answer 14

Stereotypes are fixed beliefs about a particular group of people that are also applied to any one member of that group. The use of stereotypes is one way in which we categorise and simplify our social world. However, they can also be negative and lead to prejudice against individuals and groups.

• often acquired indirectly from other people and social norms and not from personal experience.
• they are schemas that help us understand the world around us
• stereotypes can be positive or negative
• tend to be very general in nature and individuals acknowledge that they cannot be applied to all members of the group. The stereotype serves as heuristic- the person is like this until proven otherwise
• prone to conformation bias- that is, we tend to see examples- whether on the street, in print or on television- that confirm our stereotypes, and we tend to ignore evidence that contradicts them

Prejudice

• when we make a judgement about individuals with very little information about them except for group membership
• prejudice is an attitude- which means that cognition (schema) is combined with emotion- in this case, often liking or disliking the individual
• prejudice is usually negative

Discrimination

• Discrimination is a behaviour- based on stereotyping and prejudice

Conformation bias and stereotyping

Conformation bias is when we tend to notice evidence that supports what we already believe. So, if I believe that a certain group of people are criminals, I will notice news reports of this group committing crimes and this will strengthen my belief. I will also discount positive or contrary evidence about the group. Conformation bias makes stereotypes resistant to change.

Cognitive misers and social identity theory

Fiske (2004) developed the ‘cognitive miser’ theory that stereotyping allows us to shortcut our thinking processes.

This relates to Tajfel et al.’s (1971) minimal paradigms explanation and Tajfel and Turner’s (1979) social identity theory explanation of the processes of social categorisation.

Social categorisation is a way of organising information about people in order to identify them quickly. When we do so, we exaggerate the differences between the groups and the similarities of things (and people) in the same group, and this can lead to stereotying.

Perdue et al. (1990) argue that social categorisation is responsible for the formation of stereotypes, through language. They argue that it is the language we use when speaking about in-groups and out-groups that may lead to prejudice.

Stereotypes can also be formed as a means of taking on the in-groups social representation of the out-group.

Illusory correlation

• a simple error of association
  
  • what is meant by this is that there is an incorrect conclusion that 2 events that occur at the same time are related
• unusual events are distinctive, so people notice them more
• the increased attention leads to stronger/ more effective coding
• this strengthens the perception that the events are associated

Limitations:

• Evidence that impressions disappears suggest that stereotypes are more linked to memory
• Cognitive overload negates illusory correlation as it prevents association
• Isolated from Biological and Cognitive approaches

Question 15

Hamilton and Guifford

Answer 15

Aim

• To investigate whether the extent to which illusory correlations lead to stereotype formation
• ‘Distinctiveness based illusory correlations happen when a relationship is believed to exist between two variables due to focusing too much on information that stands out’

Procedure

• ONLY 40 American undergraduate students (20 male and 20 female)
  
  • Ethnocentric study: Western Educated Industrialised Rich Democratic
• Participants were asked to read 39 statements about two groups of people (Group A and group B)
• There were twice as many people in group A (26) as group B (13)
• The statement about each person was either positive or negative
• Participants were told that group B was smaller than group A before the study; to prime the participants to make assumptions about the minority group (seeing them as out group)
• Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative statements
• Participants were then asked to rate the groups on 20 traits e.g. popular or intelligent

Results and Conclusion

• Group A was ranked higher for positive traits and lower for negative traits compared to group B
• Hamilton and Guilford argued that this was because the minority group was by nature smaller in number, their negative behaviours appeared more distinct and therefore seemed more representative of the group
• This demonstrates why negative stereotypes may be formed

evaluation
- sampling bias: Ethnocentric: western, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic , as it is done on american undergraduates. Therefore this study is not generalisable

Question 16

Hamilton and guifford link to stereotypes

Answer 16

This study illustrates the formation of stereotypes through the process of illusory correlation, where people perceive a stronger association between two variables than actually exists. In this case, participants were primed to view Group B as the minority and, despite both groups having the same proportion of positive and negative traits, they attributed more negative traits to Group B. This occurred because the negative behaviors in the smaller group stood out as more distinctive, leading participants to form an exaggerated belief about the group’s negative characteristics. This demonstrates how minority groups can become targets of negative stereotyping due to the disproportionate focus on distinct or negative information, even in the absence of actual behavioral differences.

Question 17

Rogers and Frantz

Answer 17

Aim:

Investigate if European settlers in South Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) adopted more conservative racial attitudes over time.
Link conservatism with maintaining racial segregation.
Procedure:

Sample: 500 white Europeans, aged 20+, with varying lengths of residence in Rhodesia.
Survey: 66 questions on racial laws/customs rated on a 4-point Likert scale.
Measured attitudes toward retaining/discontinuing segregation.
Demographic factors (income, education, political preferences) were analyzed.
Findings:

Mean score: 2.45, showing general support for segregation.
Newer residents (<5 years) were least conservative.
Longer residence strongly correlated with increased conservatism (p < 0.001).
No significant correlation with age or income; education and political preferences mattered.
Conclusion:

Settlers gradually adopted in-group norms and stereotypes about the African population.
Social identity influenced by prevailing attitudes over time.
Evaluation:

Strengths:
Large, representative sample improves generalizability within Rhodesia.
Highlights the role of in-group conformity in adopting stereotypes.
Limitations:
Findings may not apply to other cultural contexts.

Question 18

Rogers and frantz link to stereotypes

Answer 18

This study highlights how stereotypes can form through social identity and conformity to group norms. As newcomers adopt the attitudes of their in-group, they integrate pre-existing stereotypes into their identity. This aligns with the idea that stereotypes are learned through socialization, where individuals absorb the beliefs and behaviors of their group to maintain acceptance and cohesion.

Question 19

The effects of stereotypes

Answer 19

There are many effects of stereotypes, however, the main 3 include:

1. stereotype threat
2. the negative consequences of positive stereotypes
3. memory distortion

what is stereotype threat?

Stereotype threat is the fear that you will confirm a negative stereotype about a group that you belong to. When people are faced with a stereotype threat, they often get nervous and perform worse, thus confirming the stereotype.

• stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm the stereotype

Question 20

Steele and Aronson (Stereotype threat)

Answer 20

A- The aim of the study was to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans. Steele & Aronson defined stereotype threat asbeing at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group.

P- The sample was made up of 114 male and female, black and white undergraduates from Stanford University. There were two independent variables in the study: the race of the participant and the test descriptions. The participants were given a standardized test of verbal ability - similar to the SAT - and were told one of two things: 1. It is a test to diagnose your intellectual ability; 2. it is a test of your problem-solving skills; In the first condition, the focus was on “verbal ability”; in the second condition, it was on “problem-solving.” Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions; however, they made sure that there were equal numbers of participants in each condition.

F- African Americans did poorly when they believed that the test was a test of their ability, but did just as well as the white Americans when they believed that it was a test of their problem-solving skills. In other words, African American participants performed less well than their white counterparts in the stereotype threat condition, but in the non-threat condition, their performance equalled that of their white counterparts.

Evaluation:

• The sample was made up of Stanford University students, so itmay not be representativeand thus difficult to generalise the findings.
• The study made use of an independent sample design. Verbal scores from participants’ SATs were collected prior to the study in order to make sure that they were all within the norm of verbal performance. In this way, participant variability was minimized. However, a matched-pairs design may have been a better approach.
• Although there is a difference between the two average scores, it does not necessarily mean that the participants experienced stereotype threat. Their salience about their racial identity and their levels of stress during the exam were not measured in this first variation of the experiment. Later variations of the experiment showed, however, that this was most probably the case

Question 21

Steele and Aronson link to stereotype threat

Answer 21

This study by Steele and Aronson provides strong evidence for the concept of stereotype threat, which occurs when individuals are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group. In the stereotype threat condition, African American participants performed worse because the test was framed as a measure of intellectual ability, activating fears of reinforcing the stereotype of lower intellectual performance. This aligns with the idea that stereotype threat can impair performance by increasing anxiety, reducing working memory, and causing self-doubt. The study highlights how societal stereotypes can directly influence individual outcomes, emphasizing the role of cognitive and social factors in perpetuating inequalities.

Question 22

Payne (stereotype threat)

Answer 22

Aim

Investigate how stereotypes affect the ability to identify whether an item is a weapon or a tool.
Procedure

Sample: 32 non-Black undergraduates (25 women, 7 men).
Materials:
2 Black male and 2 White male faces.
4 photos of tools (pliers, wrench, drill).
4 photos of guns.
Steps:
Practice round (48 trials): Participants identified tools vs. weapons without faces to familiarize them with the test. Error rates were nearly 0%.
Main task (192 trials):
A face (Black or White) briefly appeared, followed by a tool or weapon.
Participants had 500 milliseconds to identify the object as a tool or weapon.
Findings

Overall error rate: 29%.
Participants misidentified tools more often than weapons.
Tools were more likely to be misidentified as guns after being primed with a Black face compared to a White face.
Race of the prime did not affect misidentifying guns as tools.
Evaluation

Pilot study (without time pressure): Only 6% error rate; no significant stereotyping effect. High cognitive load (time pressure) played a critical role in the stereotyping effect.
Strengths:
High internal validity.
Replicable to test reliability.
Limitations:
Low ecological validity due to artificial setting.
Fatigue effects may have influenced results, but pilot study suggests this was not significant.

Question 23

Payne link to negative effects of stereotypes

Answer 23

Demonstrates how stereotypes distort perception under time pressure.
Black faces primed participants to misidentify tools as guns, reflecting automatic racial bias.
Highlights how stereotypes operate unconsciously, even without explicit endorsement.
Shows potential for harmful outcomes in real-world, high-stakes situations like law enforcement.

Question 24

Holistic evaluation for stereotypes and stereotype threat

Answer 24

Stereotype Formation
Empirical Support with Cognitive-Social Integration:
Stereotype formation is backed by robust experimental evidence (e.g., Payne et al., 2001) and effectively bridges cognitive and social psychology, showing how implicit biases develop through social learning and categorization processes. This dual approach gives the theory strong explanatory power.

Measurement and Generalizability Issues:
Despite solid lab-based support, the reliability of tools like the IAT and the limited ecological validity of many studies make it difficult to confidently generalize findings to real-world settings. Plus, cultural and temporal shifts can alter how and which stereotypes are formed.

Effects of Stereotypes
Practical and Wide-Reaching Implications:
Research on the effects of stereotypes, such as stereotype threat, has led to tangible interventions in education and workplaces (e.g., task reframing, mentorship programs). Its applicability across domains shows the theory’s relevance in addressing social inequality.

Reductionist and Situationally Limited:
While stereotype threat is well-documented, it can be reductionist, failing to account for individual resilience, coping strategies, or situational nuance. Not everyone experiences the same effects, and this variability limits the theory’s predictive scope.

Question 25

Cultural norms

Answer 25

*Acculturation: the process by which someone comes into contact with another culture and begins to adopt the norms and behaviours of that culture* *Enculturation: the process of adopting or internalising the schemas of your culture* **Cultural norms** - A cultural norm is a set of rules based on how socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave to be accepted within that group. Norms regulate behaviour within a group. When individuals deviate from social or cultural norms they may be punished, marginalised, stigmatised, or seen as creative and affecting change in society. Being social animals, the need to belong plays a strong role in the desire to conform to group norms. - Culture is a complex concept that is used in many different ways. “Culture” is how we describe food and eating habits, gender roles, rituals, communication patterns and use of free time within a society. When we talk about culture, we refer to either surface culture or deep culture.

Question 26

Takano and sogon (cultural norms)

Answer 26

Aim: To investigate the rate of conformity of Japanese participants in a replication of Asch’s conformity study Method; 297 Japanese college students who belonged to the same non-sports college clubs participated. (non-sports clubs were chosen as there is less strict vertical discipline which may result in higher rates of normative conformity). They were split into 40 groups of between 7 and 9 participants, with each group having just one naive participant. Asch’s line-matching task was presented, and 12 out of the 18 trials the confederates unanimously answered incorrectly. In all trials the naive participant sat in the last but one position. Results: The rate of conformity was 25.2% with 14 participants not conforming in any of the critical trials, and three conforming in all 12. No systematic relation was found between conformity rate and duration of club membership, ruling out an in-group effect. Conclusion: the rate is much the same as the average conformity rate among the Americans in the same experimental setting. Although Asch reported 36.8%, some researchers may expect that it was a product of the McCarthy era. **Evaluation**: - a meta-analysis was used of previous research to discern the difference in attitudes of Americans and Japanese, but also between Japanese and other supposedly collectivist cultures. this ensured a strong theoretical background to their study - the participants were Japanese and residents in Japan, so there is a slim chance they already knew of the collectivist stereotype of the Japanese - Participants were mainly from one university in the capital city; the conformity rates may have been different in other parts of the country - lacks mundane realism (ecological validity)

Question 27

Takano and sogon link to cultural norms

Answer 27

This study links to cultural norms by examining conformity in Japanese participants, typically associated with collectivist cultures. The results showed conformity rates similar to those of Americans in Asch’s original study, challenging the stereotype that collectivist cultures always show higher conformity. This suggests that while cultural norms influence behavior, they are not the sole determinant of actions.

Question 28

Kearins (cultural norms)

Answer 28

Aim Investigate cultural differences in memory and spatial awareness between Indigenous Australian and white Australian children. Procedure Sample: 44 Indigenous and 44 white Australian adolescents (12–16 years old), matched for age and sex. Task: 20 objects placed on a board, studied briefly, then reconstructed in original positions. Four variations: artificial different, natural different, artificial same, natural same. Indigenous children performed better, especially with natural items. Findings Indigenous children outperformed white children on all tasks, with the largest gap for natural items. White children performed best on the artificial different task. Indigenous children’s superior visual-spatial memory linked to survival skills in harsh environments. Conclusion Cultural lifestyle influences memory, with Indigenous Australians developing visual-spatial skills crucial for desert survival. Evaluation Strengths: Insight into cultural influence on memory. Matched samples and mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative). Limitations: Quasi-experiment limits cause-and-effect conclusions. Limited generalizability beyond the studied groups. Possible cultural bias in task familiarity. Parental exposure to traditional lifestyle may influence results.

Question 29

Kearins link to cultural norms

Answer 29

This study demonstrates how cultural factors shape cognitive abilities. Indigenous Australian children’s superior performance in spatial memory tasks suggests that their environment, which demands survival skills like memorizing locations and objects in the harsh desert, might influence their cognitive strategies. This highlights the role of culture in shaping memory and perception.

Question 30

Cultural norms Holistic evaluation

Answer 30

- many studies are rather artificial - it is difficult to know whether priming is actually successful - it is not possible to isolate culture as a variable - culture is dynamic, so older research may no longer be relevant; lacks temporal validity

Question 31

Cultural dimensions

Answer 31

In addition to cultural norms, another component of culture is dimensions. Dimensions are how the values of a society affect behaviour. A dimension describes the trends of behaviour in a given culture. Hofestedes's research involved asking employees of a multinational company to fill in surveys about morale in the workplace. He then carried out a factor analysis on the questionnaires, focusing on the key differences submitted by employees in different countries. His research is an example of an etic approach and it looked at the 40 most representative countries in surveys. Hofstede (1973) first developed the theory that cultural dimensions shape the behaviour of whole cultures. The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values that affect the population’s behaviour and cognition could be analysed at the country level: individualism, collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance; masculinity and femininity; long-term and short-term orientation and indulgence vs. restraint. Hofstede concluded that most of these cultural dimensions could be used universally to describe the norms for behaviour in that culture. Two key cultural dimensions: - **Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation**- This was developed to try to explain the differences between Western and Eastern societies: long term orientation is characterised by persistence, ordering relationships by status and thrift (carefulness with money). Short term orientation means valuing personal steadfastness and stability, protecting your reputation/ keeping face - **Individualism vs. Collectivism**- In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are lose: everyone is expected to look after themselves. In collectivist societies, from birth onwards, people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families, which provide support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.

Question 32

Berry (cultural dimensions)

Answer 32

Aim: Investigate how cultural differences in individualism and collectivism affect conformity using a variation of the Asch paradigm. Procedure: Tested three cultural groups: Temne (collectivist), Inuit (individualist), and Scots (reference group). Participants included both traditional and Western-influenced individuals. Task: Match a line to a standard line with false cultural consensus provided in trials 3-6. Dependent variable: Deviation from the correct line (scored 0 to 15). Findings: Temne: Highest conformity rates. Inuit: Lowest conformity rates, even lower than Scots. No significant difference between traditional and transitional members within groups. Conclusion: Conformity influenced by cultural values: Collectivist cultures (e.g., Temne): Higher conformity due to prioritizing group consensus. Individualist cultures (e.g., Inuit): Lower conformity due to emphasis on personal judgment. Evaluation: Strengths: Native languages minimized confounding variables. Highly replicable procedure ensures reliability. Inclusion of traditional and transitional participants enhanced generalizability. Limitations: Low ecological validity: Artificial task unlikely to reflect real-life scenarios. Quasi-experimental design: No random allocation limits causal inferences. Temporal validity: Findings may not apply in today’s globalized context. Potential stereotyping: Risk of overgeneralizations about cultural groups (ecological fallacy).

Question 33

Berry link to cultural dimensions

Answer 33

This study demonstrates the influence of individualism and collectivism on behavior. In collectivist cultures like the Temne, social harmony and group cohesion lead to higher conformity, reflecting Hofstede’s idea that collectivist societies value consensus. In contrast, the Inuit’s lower conformity aligns with individualist cultures, where independence and uniqueness are prioritized. However, the lack of salience of cultural dimensions among participants means these results reflect general trends rather than individual behavior.

Question 34

Cultural dimensions holistic evaluation

Answer 34

- there is difficulty with the construct of a cultural dimension and therefore difficult to actually measure its effect on behaviour - raises the question os stereotyping and conformation bias (research bias) - research is often artificial- lacks research under natural conditions - it can be seen to just be another form of stereotyping

Question 35

Enculturation

Answer 35

Enculturation is the process of how we adopt the behaviours that are the norm for our culture. A significant part of the development of our identity is the learning and maintenance of the necessary and appropriate behaviours and norms of our own culture. **How does Enculturation happen?** An understanding of the values, language and expectations of the culture are bestowed onto the child through interactions with gatekeepers (e.g. parents, media and school) Enculturation is a constant process that reinforces your identity as a member of your culture. Enculturation results in the development of cultural schema. One behaviour which is enculturated is gender roles - it may be a result of direct tuition - social cognitive theory

Question 36

Greenfield (enculturation) | Direct tuition

Answer 36

AIM: To investigate how Tzotzil children learn weaving through direct tuition and social interaction. PROCEDURE: Greenfield conducted participant observation, living among the families and videotaping 14 mother-daughter pairs. He interviewed participants in Tzotzil and observed how weaving skills were taught. FINDINGS: Daughters were taught to replicate four traditional striped patterns through direct tuition. Mothers denied explicit teaching but were observed monitoring, correcting, and guiding their daughters. As daughters improved, mothers intervened less, allowing independent weaving. CONCLUSION: Weaving skills were passed down through direct tuition, with structured guidance gradually reducing as proficiency increased. This reflected the cultural value of preserving traditions through teaching. EVALUATION Naturalistic Setting: By studying children in their everyday environment, Greenfield captured learning processes as they naturally occur, which enhanced the ecological validity of the study. Potential Observer Bias: As the researcher was immersed in the community, there’s a risk of subjectivity or bias in interpreting the data, which might affect the study's objectivity.

Question 37

Greenfield link to enculturation

Answer 37

Greenfield’s study demonstrates **enculturation**, the process by which individuals learn and adopt the values, customs, and behaviors of their culture. The Tzotzil mothers **taught their daughters to weave** through direct tuition, reinforcing traditional gender roles and preserving cultural identity. As daughters **practiced and improved**, they internalized both the skill and its cultural significance, illustrating how enculturation occurs through structured guidance and social interaction.

Question 38

Odden and Rochat (Enculturation) | Observation

Answer 38

**Aim:** To investigate how Samoan children learn cultural skills and social hierarchy through observation rather than direct instruction. **Procedure:** - A 25-month longitudinal study was conducted on 28 children in a single Samoan village. - Researchers observed the children’s behavior, particularly focusing on how they learned to fish and understand the hierarchical structure of their society. - Interviews were conducted with parents and teachers to gather additional insights into the children's learning process. - A multiple-choice test on social hierarchy was administered to 46 twelve-year-olds to assess their knowledge of Samoan societal norms. **Findings:** - Children did not receive direct instruction on fishing or social hierarchy but learned these skills through observation. - Boys spent time watching adult males fish and later experimented independently with fishing equipment. By age 12, they could fish on their own. - Similarly, children learned the social hierarchy by observing adult interactions and listening to conversations rather than being explicitly taught. - The multiple-choice test revealed that 12-year-olds had a broad understanding of their society’s hierarchical system. **Conclusion:** The study suggests that cultural norms and skills in Samoa are transmitted through observational learning rather than direct teaching. This highlights the role of enculturation in shaping children's understanding of their culture. | Evaluation ## Footnote A key strength of the study is its ecological validity, as it was conducted in a natural setting, allowing researchers to observe real-life cultural transmission. Additionally, the longitudinal design enabled a more in-depth understanding of how learning occurs over time. However, the study has limitations, such as its small sample size and focus on a single Samoan village, which reduces its generalizability to other cultures. There is also the possibility of researcher bias in interpreting observations.

Question 39

Enculturation (holistic evaluation)

Answer 39

- Difficulty of measuring enculturation- lack of ecological or internal validity - Many of the studies are rather old and may lack temporal validity - There is no measure of biological factors in many of these studies- if it is difficult to know which behaviours are learned and which may be pre-programmed genetically - Studies are often correlational, leading to the question of bidirectional ambiguity - Although there are some striking differences- what is more striking is that gender is rather consistent around the world. The similarities are more notable than the differences. If there are differences in gender norms and values this is more often the result of local sources. - There is the problem of the operationalisation of culture as a variable in a globalised world and internet-connected world - Lack of support for the concept of self-socialisation- that is , that children actively seek out information about their gender, is vague and unmeasurable

Question 40

Acculturation

Answer 40

Acculturation is the process of changing and assimilating into a different culture from the original one we were born into. Acculturation is needed if we stay for any extended length of time in another culture, and especially if we make our home there. It involves learning the language, understanding the cultural norms and where possible conforming to them. **The Theory of Acculturation** - The theory of acculturation, which was created by Berry (2008), argues that the process of acculturation leads to cultural and psychological changes in both parties - Instead of one rather homogenous global society ensuing, as the ‘non-dominant group’ (minority group) is absorbed into the dominant culture, the behaviours of those engaged in acculturation are varied and complex, as acculturation is negotiated through a mutual reciprocal process - He identified four acculturation strategies used by the non-dominant group **The Acculturation Strategies** 1. Assimilation When individuals do not wish to maintain their own culture and seek daily interactions with people from the dominant culture. 1. Separation When individuals wish to maintain their own culture and do not wish to integrate, therefore they avoid contact with the dominant culture. This can only be pursued if the dominant culture does not impose marginalisation or assimilation. 1. Integration When individuals wish to interact with the dominant culture and be an integral part of this culture, while maintaining their own identity as well. Integrated individuals are bicultural. This can only be pursued if the dominant culture does not impose marginalisation or assimilation. 1. Marginalisation Often follows enforced cultural loss, and is when individuals have no interest in integration or assimilation into the dominant culture, even though they have lost their own. **The effects of acculturation** If the dominant and non-dominant cultures do not share the same preferences for the choice of acculturation strategy, then inconsistencies and conflicts between these various acculturation preferences create difficulty, usually for acculturating individuals. (But can also apply to members of the dominant culture) 1. **Acculturative stress** Generally, when acculturation experiences cause problems for acculturating individuals or conflict between acculturating groups, we observe the phenomenon of acculturative stress. 1. **Acculturation Gaps** These are differences in understanding and values between parents and children as they go through the process of acculturation. This occurs when parents have a different acculturation strategy from their children. 1. Reverse culture shock The feeling of surprise, disorientation, confusion, alienation or frustration experienced when people return to their home after living in another culture and finding that they do not fit in as they once did.

Question 41

Miranda and matheny (acculturation)

Answer 41

**Aim**: To see which factors in the lives of Latino Immigrants to the United States would decrease the level of acculturative stress **Procedure**: A random sample of 197 members of two social services agencies completed a questionnaire and tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping strategies for stress **Findings**: The study suggests that immigrants with effective coping strategies, good proficiency in English, and a strong family structure were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less likely to experience acculturative stress and show a higher level of acculturation **Conclusion**: The study shows that many protective factors may influence the extent to which an individual acculturates and the effect that this will have on mental health. - Valuable as it shows that many protective factors can aid in acculturation; this allows us to ensure that immigrants to America are given help to enhance their proficiency in English to reduce their acculturative stress - Encourages the maintenance of a strong family structure - Due to the use of questionnaires, only correlational data is collected - It is very difficult to have a good construct validity when looking for indirect measures - The questionnaire was taken in english; is their proficiency good enough to understand - There are a large number of Spanish-speaking countries so it is very hard to generalise the results from this experiment

Question 42

Miranda and matheny link to acculturation

Answer 42

This study suggests that assimilation is an effective strategy for reducing acculturative stress. Immigrants who were proficient in English and had spent more time in the U.S. experienced less stress, indicating that integration into American society helped ease adaptation. Additionally, strong family cohesion and coping strategies, often seen in assimilated individuals, further reduced acculturative stress, supporting the benefits of assimilation.

Question 43

Lueck and wilson (acculturation)

Answer 43

Aim: Investigate variables predicting acculturative stress in Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. Procedure: Sample: 2095 Asian Americans (1271 first-generation immigrants; others born in the US to immigrant parents). Included Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese participants. Interviews: Semi-structured; culturally and linguistically similar interviewers. Conducted online or face-to-face. Random validation of data. Measures: Acculturative stress, language proficiency/preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status. Findings: 70% (1433/2095) had acculturative stress. Bilingual language preference: Lower stress; facilitates support networks within and outside the community. Conclusion: Bilingualism and maintaining original culture reduce acculturative stress. Highlights the importance of language proficiency. Evaluation: Strengths: Large, diverse sample = high representativeness. Weaknesses: Time-consuming (semi-structured interviews). Difficult to define acculturative stress. Assumes all Asian cultures are equally collectivistic.

Question 44

Holistic evaluation (acculturation)

Answer 44

**Language problems** Language problem in giving tests to immigrants. It is not only a question of whether they understand the vocabulary of the test, but how they interpret the questions. In addition, when measuring “acculturation”, there is an assumption of what healthy acculturation looks like **A variety of factors affect individuals other than acculturation** There are many variables that may influence the experience of migrants to a new culture. These include age of migration, length of residency, education, sexual orientation, religion, class and trauma experienced prior to arrival in the new culture. This makes it difficult to find representative samples that can be used to generate theories about the acculturation experience. In addition, historically such studies have a high attrition rate and low rate of participation.

Question 45

HL EXTENSION: Globalisation

Answer 45

Globalisation is the movement towards a unifying global culture and set of values (these values include: freedom of choice, individual rights, openness to change and tolerance of differences) based on individualism, free market economics and trade. Globalisation is due to four main reasons: - increased travel - transnational companies with labour standards - international marketing and access to goods - flow of information e.g. due to the Internet and TV The effects of globalisation: - Individuals in the global culture, who are delocalised, need to work out a role for themselves in the new culture and develop a new cultural identity. If they are unable to successfully do this, then they undergo identity confusion. This can lead to mental health disorders. - low subjective-well being - eating disorders

Question 46

Ogihara and Uchida

Answer 46

Aim: To investigate the effect of working in an individualistic workplace and how that would affect the subjective well-being of Japanese women. Procedure: The sample consisted of 34 adult Japanese women who worked for a large insurance company, where performance and achievement-oriented goals were posted on the walls of the offices. The participants answered questionnaires related to individualistic and collectivistic orientation, subjective well-being and the nature of their relationships. Findings: The results suggested that even in the studies’ achievement-oriented environment, Japanese participants who were achievement-oriented scored lower on subjective well-being and had fewer close friends. The lower levels of well-being in the Japanese sample may be due to the transition that Japan is currently experiencing, where globalisation is leading to a movement toward individualism in the workplace while maintaining the traditional collectivistic values in general society Conclusion: The study provides a correlation that as you move towards a globalised culture, while maintaining your localised culture, if there is a gap between those cultures (collectivism vs individualism) then this will have an impact on mental health due to identity confusion, leading to a lower subjective well-being. Evaluation: - No cause and effect established - Gynocentric - Due to the use of surveys and questionnaires, it is hard to appreciate subjective interpretations - It may lack construct validity, as it is hard to show globalisation - Very small sample size - The assumption that all Japanese women are collectivist

Question 47

Ogihara and uchida link to local vs global culture

Answer 47

due to this introduction of the competing dichotomy of the collectivist Japanese culture, and individualist Global culture, there has been a change (decrease) in the subjective well-being of the subjects

Question 48

Becker et al

Answer 48

**Aim**: To investigate if the introduction of television led to an increase in disordered eating attitudes and behaviors among Fijian adolescent girls. **Procedure**: The study compared two groups of Fijian schoolgirls, one sample (1995) tested shortly after the introduction of television and another (1998) tested three years later. The girls completed the EAT-26 survey and participated in semi-structured interviews. Weight and height were also measured, and in 1998, additional questions about dieting practices and body image were included. **Findings**: The results showed a significant increase in disordered eating behaviors over time. The 1995 group had a lower average EAT-26 score (12.7%) compared to the 1998 group (29.2%), with 11.3% reporting purging behaviors. By 1998, dieting and body dissatisfaction were common, and many girls cited television as influencing their body image and self-esteem. **Conclusion**: The study concluded that the introduction of television altered Fijian girls’ attitudes toward body image, promoting dieting and disordered eating behaviors, a shift likely influenced by Western ideals presented on television. Evaluation: - As this is a naturalistic study, it has a high ecological validity. However, it is impossible to replicate so has a low level of reliability - The data was self-reported. This was not a diagnosis. We cannot say that the girls had eating disorders - There cannot be a clear cut conclusion that the group in 1998 did not have disordered eating behaviours in 1995 as the two samples didn’t use the same participants. - It is difficult to isolate the variable of television viewing. There was no logging of the number of hours watched

Question 49

Becker link to globalisation

Answer 49

This study illustrates the impact of globalization on cultural attitudes, specifically how the introduction of Western media through television influenced Fijian girls' perceptions of body image. Before television, Fijian culture emphasized larger body sizes as desirable, but after exposure to global media, the girls' attitudes shifted toward Western ideals of thinness, leading to increased dieting and disordered eating behaviors. The study highlights how globalization can bring about cultural changes, particularly in relation to self-image and health behaviors, as Western media standards become more pervasive. (due to this paradigm shift of the views of the girls on the ideal body type after the introduction of television and so the global culture, this led to eating disorders in the girls )

Question 50

Holistic evaluation for globalisation

Answer 50

Recognition of Individual Variation: Globalization research acknowledges that the impact of moving from local to global culture is highly subjective and varies greatly among individuals, depending on factors like acculturation strategies. This nuance allows for a more personalized understanding of cultural change and its psychological effects. Methodological Challenges: Globalization is difficult to measure objectively—the shift from local to global culture is complex and abstract, and studies often rely on self-report data prone to demand characteristics and social desirability bias. These methodological issues weaken the reliability and validity of findings in the field.