Paper 3

Question 1

Informed consent

Answer 1

• Definition: Participants must be fully informed about the nature, purpose, and potential risks of the research before agreeing to take part.
• Key Elements:
  
  • Must include clear communication of the study’s procedures, duration, and potential risks or benefits.
  • Participation must be voluntary, without coercion or undue influence.
  • For vulnerable groups (e.g., children), consent must be obtained from legal guardians.
• Importance: Ensures autonomy and respect for participants’ rights.
• Challenges: In some studies, full disclosure might compromise the study’s validity (e.g., when deception is involved).

Question 2

Deception

Answer 2

• Definition: Involves intentionally withholding or misrepresenting information about the study to participants.
• Key Elements:
  
  • Acceptable only when necessary to maintain the integrity of the research and when no alternative methods are available.
  • Must not cause harm or distress.
  • Participants must be informed of the deception and its purpose during debriefing.
• Importance: Allows researchers to study behaviors in a natural context without participant bias.
• Challenges: Balancing scientific validity with the ethical obligation to respect participants’ rights.

Question 3

Confidentiality/Anonymity

Answer 3

• Definition: Ensures that participants’ personal information is not disclosed without their consent and that data is reported in a way that protects their identity.
• Key Elements:
  
  • Anonymity involves not collecting identifiable information about participants (e.g., names, addresses).
  • Confidentiality involves keeping any collected identifiable information secure and private.
• Importance: Protects participants from potential social, legal, or professional repercussions.
• Challenges: In cases of legal obligation (e.g., if a participant reveals illegal activity), confidentiality may be ethically or legally compromised.

Question 4

Debrief

Answer 4

• Definition: Providing participants with a full explanation of the study’s purpose, methods, and findings after participation, especially if deception was used.
• Key Elements:
  
  • Participants must leave the study without confusion or distress.
  • Researchers should address any harm or concerns and provide resources if needed.
  • Participants must be informed of their right to withdraw their data post-study.
• Importance: Ensures transparency and maintains trust between researchers and participants.
• Challenges: Complex studies may require extended debriefing to clarify all details effectively.

Question 5

Right to withdraw

Answer 5

• Definition: Participants can discontinue their participation at any time without penalty or consequence.
• Key Elements:
  
  • Participants must be informed of this right before the study begins.
  • Applies to both participation and data usage (e.g., participants can request their data be removed).
• Importance: Ensures voluntary participation and upholds autonomy.
• Challenges: In some longitudinal studies, withdrawal of data may affect the integrity of the results.

Question 6

Protection from harm

Answer 6

• Definition: Researchers must ensure that participants are not exposed to physical or psychological harm during or after the study.
• Key Elements:
  
  • Includes protecting participants from stress, discomfort, or negative emotions.
  • Researchers must stop the study if harm is detected.
  • , leaA risk assessment should be conducted prior to the study to minimize potential harm.
• Importance: Central to ethical research, ensuring the well-being of participants.
• Challenges: Unforeseen harm may arise, requiring researchers to address these issues promptly.

Question 7

True experiment

Answer 7

• Definition: A study in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on a dependent variable (DV) under controlled conditions.
• Key Features:
  
  • Random allocation of participants to experimental and control groups.
  • High control over extraneous variables.
• Strengths:
  
  • High internal validity due to control over variables.
  • Allows for causal relationships to be established.
• Limitations:
  
  • Artificial environment may lower ecological validity.
  • Ethical constraints may limit manipulation of certain variables.

Question 8

Focus group

Answer 8

• Definition: A qualitative research method where a small group of participants discusses a specific topic, guided by a facilitator.
• Key Features:
  
  • Interactive discussion allows for in-depth exploration of opinions, attitudes, and experiences.
  • Typically consists of 6-12 participants.
• Strengths:
  
  • Captures diverse perspectives and rich qualitative data.
  • Group dynamics can stimulate ideas that might not arise in one-on-one interviews.
• Limitations:
  
  • Risk of groupthink or dominance by vocal participants.
  • Difficult to generalize findings due to small sample size.

Question 9

Case Study

Answer 9

• Definition: An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event to explore complex phenomena.
• Key Features:
  
  • Uses multiple data sources (e.g., interviews, observations, records).
  • Often used in clinical or unique situations.
• Strengths:
  
  • Provides detailed and rich qualitative insights.
  • Useful for studying rare or unique cases.
• Limitations:
  
  • Limited generalizability.
  • Potential for researcher bias.

Question 10

Naturalistic observation

Answer 10

• Definition: Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without interference.
• Key Features:
  
  • The researcher does not manipulate variables.
  • Can be overt (participants are aware) or covert (participants are unaware).
• Strengths:
  
  • High ecological validity.
  • Allows study of behaviors in real-world settings.
• Limitations:
  
  • Lack of control over extraneous variables.
  • Ethical concerns if covert observation is used.

Question 11

Semi-structured interviews

Answer 11

• Definition: A mix of pre-determined questions and open-ended questions that allow for flexibility during the interview.
• Key Features:
  
  • Questions guide the interview, but new topics can emerge naturally.
  • Balances structure and adaptability.
• Strengths:
  
  • Provides detailed qualitative data.
  • Allows exploration of unexpected insights.
• Limitations:
  
  • Time-consuming and resource-intensive.
  • Requires skilled interviewers to maintain consistency.

Question 12

Natural experiment

Answer 12

• Definition: A study where the researcher takes advantage of naturally occurring differences in the independent variable, without manipulation.
• Key Features:
  
  • Conducted in natural settings where variables occur organically.
  • IV is not controlled by the researcher.
• Strengths:
  
  • High ecological validity.
  • Useful for studying variables that cannot be ethically or practically manipulated.
• Limitations:
  
  • No control over extraneous variables, reducing internal validity.
  • Causality cannot be firmly established.

Question 13

Correlational study

Answer 13

• Definition: Examines the relationship between two variables to determine if they are associated.
• Key Features:
  
  • Does not manipulate variables; measures their natural occurrence.
  • Correlation coefficients range from -1 (negative) to +1 (positive).
• Strengths:
  
  • Identifies relationships between variables for further study.
  • Can handle large data sets efficiently.
• Limitations:
  
  • Cannot establish causation.
  • Potential for third-variable confounding effects.

Question 14

Survey/ questionnaire

Answer 14

• Definition: A research method where participants respond to a series of questions, either open-ended or close-ended, to collect data on opinions, attitudes, or behaviors.
• Key Features:
  
  • Can be conducted online, in person, or by mail.
  • Often uses Likert scales or multiple-choice questions.
• Strengths:
  
  • Efficient for collecting data from large samples.
  • Cost-effective and easy to distribute.
• Limitations:
  
  • Risk of response biases (e.g., social desirability bias).
  • Limited depth of qualitative insights.

Question 15

Quasi experiment

Answer 15

• Definition: A study where the IV is not manipulated by the researcher, but groups are pre-existing (e.g., gender, age).
• Key Features:
  
  • Resembles a true experiment but lacks random assignment.
  • Often used when random allocation is impractical or unethical.
• Strengths:
  
  • Allows study of variables that cannot be randomly assigned.
  • Combines experimental and observational methods.
• Limitations:
  
  • Reduced control over confounding variables.
  • Causality is harder to establish.

Question 17

Ensuring credibility

Answer 17

“The Most Reliable Researchers” (TMRR)
Triangulation
Member checking
Reflexivity
Researcher credibility

Question 18

Ensuring generalisability

Answer 18

“Some small experiments represent” (SSER)
Sampling bias
Size of sample
Environment of Research
Representative of wider population

Question 19

Avoiding biasu c

Answer 19

“Be ready to see small people emergency room” (BRTSSPER)
Blind controls
Randomisation
Triangulation
Standardisation
Sampling bias
Peer review/ pilot study
Experimenter effects
Reflexivity