The Sixties 1964-1970 Flashcards
Who won the 1964 election ?
Harold Wilson leader of the Labour Party
What is significant about Wilsons “white heat” speech ?
-It allowed the Labour Party to enter a new era of modernisation and unity.
-Created a clear contrast between conservative and labour
-Moved labours image away from communism and towards development of technology and science.
Why was Wilsons unification of the party important in order to win the 1964 election?
-The Labour Party was a weak opposition because there were quarrels within the party between Bevanites and Gaitskellites.
-Created a more electable image.
What was Wilsons public image like ?
-He was deemed relatable due to his humble background
-he was relaxed and skilful on TV
-Smoked a pipe and had a thick Yorkshire accent
-seen to be in touch with the modern society
What was Wilsons ideology ?
-He gained support of the left and challenged Gaitskells leadership
-He supported Britains nuclear deterrent
-attempted to reform trade unions
-Wanted a more liberal society (relaxed laws around divorce, abortion, homosexuality)
What were Wilson’s political skills ?
-Passed many popular acts to create a more liberal society
-he was ambitious and optimistic
-he was a convincing politician
What was Wilson’s leadership style like ?
-He relied heavily on his trusted team of advisors from outside of govt and the civil service
-He had an inner circle of MP’s (the “kitchen cabinet”)
-he believed in unity and modernisation
who was Labour’s chancellor between 1964 and 1967?
Callaghan
who was Labour’s chancellor between 1967 and 1970?
Jenkins
What was the majority of the Second election in 1966?
96 (increased from 4-96)
What was the Balance of Payment deficit inherited from the Conservative government?
£800million
Why was the Labour Party allied to the trade unions?
Party Funding
What were some of Wilson’s economics aims?
-Reduce inflation
-Adress the balance of payments deficit through exports
-Improve the economy and make Britain more competitive
-Maintain the value of the pound ( £1=$2.80)
Why did Wilson say he would never devalue the pound?
-He was involved when labour devalued the pound in 1947 and did not want to be the man who devalued twice.
How many runs on the pound were there in 1964-1970?
7
Why was devaluation not an option in 1964?
-Fear of knock on effect in the USA (run on the $)
-Would reduce the savings of hardworking, labour voting families
-Feared devaluation would make him lose his tiny majority
What economic route did Wilson take in 1964?
Used stop and go economics:
-Increase taxes
-Limit wages
-Increase tarriffs
-Cut govt spending
What deflationary charge was brought in in the autumn of 1964?
15% charge on all imports was introduced
What were the Autumn 1964 and Spring 1965 budgets?
Increased income tax, tax on alcohol, tobacco and petrol.
How much revenue did the Autumn and Spring budgets raise?
475million
What did the government spend the revenue from the budgets on?
-Commitments to their manifesto pledges (pensions, welfare state and abolition of prescription charges)
What did Wilson do after the 1966 election which angered the unions?
-Mandatory wage freeze and prices for 6 months
Why was the Department for Economic affairs created?
To coordinate national planning to make industry more competitive.
When was the National Plan published ?
September 1965
Was the National plan extremely ambitious?
Yes
What did the National plan cover?
All aspects of britains economic developments for the next 5 years.
What did the National plan pledge?
-Increase national output by 25% by 1970
How did the National plan aim to reach a national output increase?
-Annual growth rate of 3.8% over 6years
-An increase in exports of 5.25% per year to deal with the balance of payments deficit
How many initiatives were in the National plan?
39
What board was created as part of the National plan?
National Board for Prices and Incomes
Why was the National board for prices and incomes created?
To ensure wage increases would only be granted if accompanied by increases in productivity
Were Wilson and Callaghan committed to deflation?
yes
How were measures used contradictory?
-the measures were in contradiction to the deflationary policies required to defend the value of the pound
Why was the DEA closed in 1969?
There was a lack of cooperation between Callaghan(treasury) and Brown(Dea)
Why did the national board for prices and incomes have no power to inforce its decisions?
It relied on the support of the unions who did not support wage restraints
What happned in May 1966?
The seamen went on strike which damaged British exports and poor trade threatened a run on the pound
What happened in September 1967 ?
There was a walkout of the dockers in major export sites.
-Good for export piled up and contibuted to a large deficit in trade
What was the trade deficit in September and October 1967?
-September = £52million
-October = £107million
What was unemployment in 1967?
2.5million which was unusually high
Why did the head of economics section of Whitehall (sir Alex Cairncross) in November 1967 write to Wilson and Callaghan?
He argued devaluation was neccessary
What was Britains deficit in in Novemebr 1967?
£1500million
Why did Cairncross argue devaluation was needed?
-No more international loans were available
-Reserves had been spent trying to defend the value of the pound
What happened on the 16th of November 1967?
Wilson announced devaluation to cabinet
Why was their a run on the pound in November 1967?
As news of the devaluation had leaked
What happened on the 18th of November 1967?
Devaluation was announced to the public (£1 was now $2.40)
Who took over as chancellor in 1967?
Jenkins
What did Jenkins budget in Spring 1968 do?
Increased taxation by £923million
Were Prescription charges reintroduced?
Yes and this was humiliating after they had been abolished in 1964 by Wilson
Did the Devaluation in November 1967 cure the economic state ?
No as in march 1968 a crisis in the US due to the Vietnam war caused a run on the pound
By 1969 were there signs of improvement after devaluation?
yes as teh balance of payments showed a surplus and the value of sterling rose
Why was Wilsons “pound in your pocket speech” in November 1967 problematic?
-People did not understand how their money would be worth the same to them.
-Average person could not understand what wilson was saying and made him seem very contradictory.
Why were Trade unions very influential and problematic to the Labour Party?
-The Unions had Block voting sysetms
-they heavily funded the party
Was Callaghan a large supporter of the Unions?
yes as he was a unionist before gaining his position in government
Who was the elected president of the TUC?
Victor feather
How many days were lost due to strike in 1970 compared to 1964?
-increased by over 8million rose from 2million to just under 11million
What was the problems with the rising days lost to striking in the 1960s?
-It impacted production
-It impacted the balance of payments
-Caused the relationship between labour and the unions to be strained
Why was legislation addressing industrial relations deemed necessary by 1969?
-Unions were ignoring wage restrictions
-Increase in wildcat strikes
-1966 wages were rising 3x the recommended rate
-Conservatives proposed a radical new legal framewrok which made wilson realise he had to do something
What were the core proposals of “In place of Strife” 1969
-Strike ballot required before strike could commence
-28days cooling period during which workers returned back to work
-Industrial relations courts backed up with fines to enforce legally binding decisions
Why was a strike ballot proposed?
-Reduce the number of wildcat strikes
-As Union leaders are often more left wing than their members so therefore more likely to want strike action
Why was a 28day cooling off period proposed?
-Opens a space for negotiation before strike action occurs and could avoid the strike
What was one of the most important reasons why ‘In Place of Strife’ fail?
The Cabinet (Callaghan)
Who was Home Secretary from 1965 to1967?
Roy Jenkins
Who was home secretary from 1967-1970 ?
James Callaghan
When was the abolition of the death penalty?
1965
What was the Murder act of 1965?
-Jenkins, Butler, and Callaghan were all in favour of the removal of the death penalty.
-It was decidedly against public opinion
-abolished for a trial period of 5 years in 1965 and ended for good in 1969.
When was the Education reform act ?
1965
What was the Education reform act ?
-Largest expansion of comprehensive schools.
-ending the 11+ exams
-Joined local grammar schools with secondary moderns
When were the two race relations acts ?
1965 and 1968
What did the race relations acts do ?
-Went against public opinion by prohibiting discrimination in public facilities, housing, employment and commercial services.
Why were the race relations acts brought into place?
-In a 1965 London survey it was found that 2/5 white Londoners knew someone who was not white.
-1/5 objected to having to work alongside black or Asian people.
-Half said they would refuse to live next to a black or Asian person.
-9/10 objected to mixed raced marriages
-Refusing to rent a property or provide services to someone based on skin colour was acceptable and common.
When was the sexual offences act ?
1967
What was the Sexual Offences act?
-Decriminalised sexual activity between consenting men aged 21 and over
-the argument was that private sexual activity was not a matter of the law.
-A 1963 poll found that 93% viewed homosexuality in men as an illness.
When was the NHS family planning act ?
1967
What was the NHS family planning act ?
-Contraception available to all on the NHS
-Centred on helping low-income families to limit family size to avoid economic struggle.
-Access to family planning was not controversial
When was the Family Planning (abortions) act?
1967
What did the family planning (abortions) act do?
-Legalised abortion
-Aimed to put an end to backstreet abortions(estimated to be around 100,000 a year) and self-induced miscarriages
-Society was split on the matter of abortion.
When was the Society for the protection of the unborn child set up?
1966
Did the number of abortions increase after 1968 ?
Yes - from around 35,000 in 1968 to 141,000 in 1975
When was the Commonwealth immigrations act ?
1968
What did the Commonwealth immigrations act do?
-Divisive issues with the public generally in favour of further restrictions.
-Decided to invalidate the papers of the Kenyan refugees and limit numbers to 1,500 per year.
-act left a loophole for commonwealth citizens who were more likely to be white.
Why was the Commonwealth immigration act put in place?
-Kenya had become independent and pursued an Africanisation programme which prioritised black Africans for Jobs.
-Thousands of Asians living in Britain decided to leave for Britain.
-Rise in popularity for groups such as the British KKK and National front.
What was the theatres act of 1968?
-Abolished censorship of the stage for the first time since the 1500s.
-this act had widespread support
What was the representation of the people act 1969?
-the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18
-lowering the voting age had widespread support
-The election first held under new rules was the 1970 election
what was the divorce reform act of 1969?
-“Irretrievable breakdown” of the relationship was now a reason for divorce
-The act simplified the process and made it less expensive.
What was the Matrimonial property act 1970?
-The contribution of the wife must be considered in divorce proceedings.
-Divorce was no longer a financial disaster for women
-The assets of a couple would be split in a way that the court deemed just.
What was the Equal pay act of 1970?
-Legislated for equal pay for equal work
When did Wilson found the Open University?
1969
What were the reasons for tensions between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland by the 1960s?
-Gerrymandering
-Favouring of Protestants in Housing and workforce(Voting had to be a property owner)
-Stormont and Socioeconomic System was dominated by protestant majorities
-1969 - Loyalist Apprentice boys went ahead with annual march in Derry
-RUC and loyalists
-IRA
When was the Northern Ireland Civil Rights association (NICRA) formed?
1967
What did the NICRA do?
-Condemned Gerrymandering
-demanded the disbanding of the RUC
-Demanded fair distribution of social and financial resources
When was the NICRA’s first major public protest?
August 1968
What happened in the NICRA Protest in October 1968?
-Protest in Londonderry
-Ended in violence > RUC baton charged the marchers
-Authorities declared as an illegal march - this is seen as beginning of the troubles
Who was Reverend Ian Paisley (1969)?
-Leader of unyielding which exploited protestant bitterness and was against catholic unionism.
Who said “Catholics breed like rabbits and spread like vermin” in 1969?
Reverend Ian Paisley
When did the first deaths of the Troubles occur in 1969?
the orange marches
When was the Battle of the bog side?
12-14 August 1969
What happened at the Battle of the Bogside?
-Apprentice boys went ahead with their march of London Derry and were attacked by the Catholics in the Bogside
-RUC stormed the bog side
-RUC held back for two days due to rioting
-Broadcasts showed the RUC beating the catholics
What did storming do to end the rioting?
-Offer to improve housing, change constituency boundaries
-This only sparked more rioting from protestants nd loyalist
When was the British army deployed to NI ?
14th August 1969
Who was the British army deployed in support of ?
The RUC
Who made the decision to deploy the army?
Callaghan
How did the Catholics view the army?
-At first clapped and was in support
-The bog side was encircled by the soldiers with protective barbed wire
When was the Ulster defence regiment formed?
1970
What was the problems with the Ulster Defence Regiment?
-Largest regiment of British army
-members came from local community - mainly protestant - own personal biases
What were Race related challenges facing labour in 1964?
-Social
-Economic
-Political
What were the economic issues surrounding Race relations 1964?
-Refusing to hire black people (discrimination in employment)
-Emigration is higher than immigration
-Many immigrants moved to the West Midlands (disproportionally impacted)
Why did many immigrants in 1964 move to the West Midlands?
-Industrial work
-Cheap labour
-lower-skilled jobs
What were the Political issues surrounding Race relations in 1964?
-7 Labour MPs believed that immigration was a disease
-No consensus in the Labour Party over race and immigration policy
-Trade Unions had racist views > challenged Wilson
-1961 Birmingham Immigration control association backed by MP Cyril Osborne
What view did the Trade Unions have on Immigration under Wilson?
-racist views
-TGWU > “Coloured” drivers not allowed
What did Labour MP Richard Crossman believe?
If Labour continued with immigration it would lose votes in 1965
What were the Social issues surrounding Race relations in 1964?
-Fear of “white flight”
-housing discrimination and poor living conditions in inner cities
-Smethwick’s Unofficial colour bar in many places
-Resident associations > Birmingham immigration control
-Hostility towards Black people
-landlords refused to let room to West Indians and Asians.
How many people in 1964 thought that there were too many black people?
8/10
What was the swing under Wilson due to immigration in Smethwick?
7% swing to the conservatives
What was the Race relations act 1965?
-Forebode discrimination in public places under the grounds of ‘colour, ethnicity, or national origins”
-Discrimination in housing and employment - excluded
-complaints to go to the Race relations board
What were the failures of the Race relations act 1965?
-RRB didn’t not take much action - failed to settle disputes
-Non-white members of communities were still discriminated against and still had to live in the poorer conditions
What was the Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968?
-Limited right of return to Britain for non-white Commonwealth citizens
-Prompted by sudden influx of Kenyan Asians > prompted Powells ‘Rivers of Blood speech’
What were the failures Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968?
-Led to ‘Rivers of Blood speech’
-discrimination against non-white commonwealth members
-Often discriminatory towards High skilled workers
-Loophole favoured white people
What was the Race Relations Act 1968?
-Banned racial discrimination in housing, employment and other services
-Race relation board given stronger powers
Why was the Commonwealth Immigration Act a political success in 1968?
-Success with White working-class voters
What were the failures of the Race Relations Act 1968?
-Loopholes > Employers could discriminate on grounds of ‘racial balance’
-RRB only upheld 10% of the 1241 complaints it received
What was the success of the Race Relations Act 1968?
-Communities began to work and live together without problems due to the reduction of discrimination
When was Enoch Powell’s Rivers of Blood speech?
April 1968
Where was the speech held and what was the significance of the location?
- Birmingham
-Lots of immigration
-Industrial area
-More working-class
Was Enoch Powell sacked from Heath’s govt as a result of the ROB Speech 1968?
Yes
What was the political impact of Powell’s ROB Speech?
-Believed that Powell’s speech made voters more likely to vote cons
-Heath’s sacking of Powell made him look like a strong and decisive leader.
-Immigration policy became the biggest vote loser for Wilson
-Race Relations Act 1968 passed by Wilson in opposition to the speech
What was the Social impact of Powell’s ROB Speech?
-110,000 letters to Powell after the speech > only 2,300 in disapproval
-Gallup Poll 1968 April > 74% agreed with the speech
-2000 dockworkers in protest due to Powell sacking
-Attacks on Black people
What was significant about the time of the speech?
-Martin Luther King was assassinated earlier in the month of April
What were the impacts of the ROB speech on the 1970 election?
-Analysts argue that 2.5million people voted conservative in 1970 because of Powell’s position on immigration
What happened in Rhodesia 1964?
-Northern Rhodesia became Zambia on October 24th
What did Wilson do on October 27th 1964 regarding Rhodesia?
-Wilson made a speech
-Spoke about Southern Rhodesia and how it needed British intervention
Who was Ian Smith?
-Prime Minister of Rhodesia
When was Ian Smith PM of Rhodesia?
1964-1979
What did Ian Smith do in November 1965?
Declared Unilateral Independence
Why was Ian Smith very controversial?
-Embodied British colonialism
- In1962 he co-founded the Rhodesian front ( to preserve white minority rule)
Why was the political climate of Rhodesia in 1964 a problem for the British government?
-Smith held a referendum > majority of N Rhodesia voted independence from the South (due to being a white vote)
-Every solution from Wilson rejected by Smith > wanted to maintain a white minority rule
What were Wilson’s options regarding Smith wanting UDI?
-Smith and other ministers who declare independence > to be dismissed
-Proposal to send a small senior party of MPs to see the situation first-hand
What did Wilson want for Rhodesia?
-Wanted a Black majority rule
-Education of the Black population
What did Wilson do and why regarding Rhodesia?
-Banned exports of tobacco and sugar to Britain
-Smith and his Ministers no longer had office
-Arms exports ended
-Oil sanctions
-No aid
-Wilson wanted to avoid military action
-All of his tactics were known as ‘quick kill’
To what extent was Wilson’s approach to Rhodesia successful?
-UN and USA backed his approach
-55% in a British poll supported wilsons actions
To what extent was Wilson’s approach to Rhodesia unsuccessful?
-Smith’s actions in return were a direct challenge > causing sanctions to fail
-oil sanctions were not much effect > Support from South Africa
-Wilson’s diplomacy got nowhere
-Problems created in Zambia and Malawi
What did the Withdrawal east of Suez from 1964 suggest about Britain?
-Suggests that Britain’s economic climate was not well-improved
-Portrayed Britain as a weak force
Why did Britain decide for the withdrawal east of Suez?
-There needed to be a reduction in military commitments for economic reasons
-Minister of Defence (Denis Healey) > started a process of spending cuts > aim to bring spending to under 6billion by 1970
What did Healey’s White paper in 1967 regarding of withdrawals east of Suez set in place?
-A timetable for troop withdrawals from Aeden, Middle East, Malaysia and Singapore
What did Wilson do in 1967 regarding withdrawals east of Suez?
-He believed in the Atlantic Alliance and Britain to have a world role
-Wilson continued to deploy US Polaris missiles
To what extent was Wilsom unsuccessful in the withdrawal east of Suez?
-Deemed not to go far enough to stabilise the economic climate
-there was no serious debates on nuclear deterrent
What in 1967 sped up the removal of troops?
Devaluation
What was the problems regarding EEC/European integration under Wilson?
-Labour party split on joining EEC > left against joining alongside Trade Unions > this contrasted with several Europhiles including Roy Jenkins and George Brown
What did Wilson do regarding EEC/European integration?
-Wilson proposed a half-hearted application in 1966 > this was weak due to party divisions > left convinced it would be rejected to accepted application
-Wilson was becoming more convinced of the EEC’s economic benefits
To what extent can Wilson be viewed as unsuccessful in regards to the EEC?
-Wilson could not accept ending the special relationship with America in De Gaulle’s agreement of acceptance > brown and Jenkins had positive meetings with De Galle - Wilson still rejected
-Wilson was portrayed as weak to the electorate and own party
-Portrayed as dependent on the USA
What was significant of the Vietnam war on Wilson?
-America wanted the support of British troops > Wilson refused to send troops but supported politically
-The Vietnam war was incredibly controversial
When was the Vietnam war?
1955-1971
What did Wilson do regarding the Vietnam war?
-Resisted any direct military action
-Was able to retain a good relationship with Johnson and the Atlantic Alliance
-Political support of USA to maintain good relations
Why couldn’t Wilson risk military action?
-Britain could not afford to send troops
-Sending troops would risk losing political support
How Did britain retain close ties with America during the Vietnam war?
-gave them political and moral support
Was Wilson succesfull with his handling of the Vietnam war?
-Yes as he did not get involved in a messy conflict
-No as tensions grew with the USA as the USA wanted troops
-Labour MPs were annoyed as they wanted to condemn the US
How did Television change in the 1960’s Due to the ‘White heat’ scientific revolution??
-1962 international television transmission > possible by USA satellite system : Telestar
-TV ownership more common
-Hugh Greene became general director of the BBC
What was TV ownership throughout the 60s?
-1961 > 75%
-1971 > 91%
Who became general directer of the BBC in 1960 ?
Hugh Greene
How did TV censorship become more relaxed in the 60s?
-Guidelines on swearing and nudity were loosened
What new TV show was introduced and why was it signifficant ?
-Doctor who
-EXplored anxieties of the time > Daleks were Nazis
When was the BBC 2 broadcast in colour?
1967
What were the impacts of TV developments?
-Tv began replacing cineam
-Advertisement was brought to the home
-Shows like doctor who explored the new scientific era
-TV shows were also a way of exploring anxieties of the age
-Controversial social issues (alcoholism and abortion) explored through the likes of the Wednesday play
How did Radio change in the 1960’s Due to the ‘White heat’ scientific revolution??
-Became cheap and portable
-Car radios invented
-Radio diversified
-Commercial radio started (Radio Luxembourg)
-Pirate radio stations (1964 Radio Caroline launched)
How many radio stations was there at the start of the 1960s?
3 BBC radio stations
when was offshore broadcasting banned?
1967
When did Radio one station attract a younger audience?
1967
What were the impacts of Radio developments?
-People > listen on the go
-Allowed youth cultures to adopt specific cultures
The launch of Pirate stations broadened the music people listened to
Why were Pirate radio stations popular?
-Main radio station were restricted in what they could play
How did Aerospace change in the 1960s’ Due to the ‘White heat’ scientific revolution’s?
-The space race
-Jet travel
What was the Space race ?
-In 1961 USSR Yuri Gagarin became the first man to orbit the earth
-1969 Neil Armstrong became the first man on the moon
How did Jet travel develop in the 60s Due to the ‘White heat’ scientific revolution?
-Growth in commercial usage > not just military
-De haviland (based in Hertfordshire) Comet Jet liners came into service in 1952 various modified forms proved a pioneers in civil engineering
What were the impacts of Aerospace developments?
-Advent of low-cost long-range travel jets > leisure opportunities for British people
-Tony Fairbrother (De HAviland spokesman) “The world changed from the moment the comets wheels left the ground”
How many holidays in Britain were overseas due to Aerospace developments?
8%
How did Chemicals develop in the ’60s Due to the ‘White heat’ scientific revolution?
-Britain chemical grants Imperial chemical industries (ICI) led the way in in scientific development
-ICI produced synthetic materials (perspex and lycra) and then shifted to pharmaceuticals > treatment of malaria, heart disease and certain forms of cancer
What were the impacts of Chemical developments?
-Improved living conditions in Britain > ICI and other companies made a contribution to fight illness and disease around the world
-Fast fashion grew due to chemical clothing > Consumerism grew
What was the relative spending on research and development across the globe in the 60s as a % of GDP?
-USA 3%
-USSR 3%
-UK 2.3%
-West Germany 1.5%
-France 1.5%
How did Atomic energy develop in the ’60s Due to the ‘White heat’ scientific revolution?
-In 1954 Nuclear power was adopted for civilian use
-By 1962 there was a nuclear reactor at Dounreay producing electricity for domestic use
-
What were the impacts of Atomic Energy developments?
-Raised great moral issues > led to protests due to the increase in nuclear weapon tests in the Pacific > CND campaign
-Shift away from coal > wanting to modernise power source and find a cleaner alternative
How did Transport develop in the ’60s Due to the ‘White heat’ scientific revolution?
-No. of Cars on British roads grew greatly > M1 (first motorway built) 1959
-Beeching report > suggests cuts to railway funding
-Progress towards making new roads > slow due to the discord between local authorities and the rise of environmentalism
-Progress was slow
What was the railway track reduced to due to the Beeching report?
from 13,000 miles to 9,000 miles
What were the impacts of Transport developments?
-Progress was slow however > the opening of M1 and closure of 114 railway tracks > paved the way for larger motorway networks
-More cars on the road > economic impacts > fuel demands rose and people could consume goods from a larger variety of places
-Rural areas alienated due to train line cuts > isolation
-Needed more oil
How did Leisure change in the 1960s?
-Large crowds at sporting games
-Restaurants and wine bars began to appear > appealing to cater for the ‘continental middle-class taste’
-Shopping became a leisure pursuit > rise in shopping malls
-Brittania Airways launched
When did Brittania airways launch?
1964
What was the increase in holidays abroad due to new airlines?
-1966 > 4%
-1971 > 8%
How did Print media industries change in the 1960s?
-The Sun started in 1964 as a left-wing workers paper
-Sun was bought by Rupert Murdoch in 1969 > soar in sun popularity > More affiliated with the right
-No restraints on newspaper biases
-2/3 of the adult population read a newspaper
-Powerful medium for public information
What was the focus of Second wave feminism?
-Legal, economic and social rights of women
-The priorities were gender roles, reproductive rights, financial independence, and domestic violence ending
What was published in 1963 that heavily influenced Second Wave feminism?
-The feminine Mystique > Betty Freidan > allowed women to articulate their dissatisfaction in their role of being a mother and wife
What helped fuel second wave feminism?
-Growth in female education
When was the first National Women’s liberation conference held?
-February 1970
What was the duty of a woman believed to be in the 60s?
-Good mother and wife > especially among the working classes
What was the growth in formally education women in the 60s?
-Secondary or Higher
-29% in 1929 to 39% in 1970)
What did Freidens book do in 1963 and who did it target?
-Middle-class educated women
-Viewed as second-class citizens > this demanded change
When was the Female Eunuch published and who by?
-1970
-Germaine Greer
What was the main demand of Greer’s book?
-Laws to be changed to address discrimination
What was feminism in the 1960s particularly concerned with?
-sexual liberation
When was the Women’s liberation movement started?
1970
When was the abortion act passed?
1967
When was the Pill made available to unmarried and married women?
1967
When was the Family planning act?
1967
What was significant about the 1967 Sexual offences act?
-Gay relations now legal however no lesbian rights
What happened in 1968?
-Dagenham women’s strike > Ford company > 200 workers striking for equal pay
when was the Divorce reform act passed?
1969
When was the open university founded and why was this significant to the feminist movement?
-1969
-allowed women to be educated while still being able to commit to domestic duties
When was the Equak pay act?
1970
By 1970 how many women reached managerial posts?
5%
How can the 60s feminist movement be seen as evolution not revolution?
-Women > no statutory maternity rights > sex discrimination protected in-laws
-Married women were legal dependents on their husbands
-Husbands had rights to sex with or without consent
-Before 1970 women were paid less than men > jobs were often low-skilled and poorly paid
-Stereotypes of women remained prominent
What was the % of illigetimate births in 1970?
8.29%
What was the ‘Reproductive Labour’ campaign and the ‘Wages for Housework’ campaign?
- RL > Wanted to display how women were exploited by industry and men > saw marriage as a domestic contract to men
-WFH > Women wanted a home allowance as being a stay-at-home mother was a full-time role
What happened at Ruskin College Oxford in 1970?
-Equal pay, free contraception, abortion, equal education and job opportunities, free 24hr childcare was put forward
What was the Matrimonial Property Act of 1970?
-Established the work of a wife whether paid in employment or in the home should be considered in divorce
What was the sexual revolution and why did it impact youth culture?
-Rejection of monogamous marriage
-sexual behaviour > expression of protests and liberation
-Cohabitation before marriage > more common
-Increase in premarital sex
-same-sex relationships regarded more normal
What were significant locations and how did they impact youth culture?
-Soho, Camden > exclusive bars and restaurants
-London > skinheads > frequent mass seaside gatherings catching the attention of the press
-Carnaby Street> centre of focus for young people > ‘mod’ and ‘hippy’ clothing style
-Camden/ Islington gentrified
How was Tourism signifficant and why did it impact youth culture?
-Jet engines > cheaper faster travel
-London > Capital of the fashion world
-articles in the Sun aimed at American tourists
-
How many foreign visiters were in London during 1960 and 1961?
–1960 > 1million
-1961 > 3million
How were drugs significant and why did they impact youth culture?
-Counter culture
-Cannabis > mildly addictive > recreational drug
-Hippy > unconventional language, behaviour and appearance > embraced working class pride
-Psychedelic drugs > LSD
-Summer of Love 1967 > LSD > started in San Francisco
How was Fashion significant and why did it impact youth culture?
-PVC
-Mary Quant > ‘mini skirts’
-Skinheads > shaven heads, Dr. Martins, braces
-Carnaby street
-New evolving fashion started to take down the gender and class divisions
-1960s > young people were spending over 60% of their income on clothes
-Twiggy
-1966 > hot pants invented
How was Music significant and why did it impact youth culture?
-Beatles > a group from Liverpool > seen as a symbol of the swinging sixties
-Pirate radios
-1967 BBC radio one
-Ready steady go (ITV 1963)
-Top of the Pops (1964 BBC)
when was ready steady go on tv?
-Ready steady go (ITV 1963)
when was Top of the Pops aired?
-Top of the Pops (1964 BBC)
How were protests significant and why did they impact youth culture?
-Anti-Vietnam War riots > Summer 1965 - Oxford and LSE > March 28th 1968 Battle of Groveseor square
-The Vietnam solidarity campaign was set up in 1966 > gained signifficant support from unis
WHen was the Vietnam Solidarity campaign set up?
1966
