The Self: Information Processing, Possible Selves, Self-Regulation Flashcards
“Thinking too much”
When we focus on something we do not normally think of, our thought patterns change
Wilson, et.al:
Strawberry jam
•2 groups asked to rate strawberry jams
•1 group simply rated, the other rationalized their ratings
•Non-rationalizing group more likely to match experts
Relationship satisfaction
*Ask reasons why relationship is going as it is
*2 groups – one simply rated, the other rationalized selection
•8 months later, rationalizing group were less likely to be in the same relationships
When we rationalize, we begin to evaluate possible irrelevant features, which can disrupt accurate judgements
We apply heuristics, a range of possible explanations, and start limiting what is important
The very fact of speaking requires something that can be articulated (which may be irrelevant), influencing judgment
Dijksterhuis et al., 2009
Asked individuals to predict standings of Dutch teams in the World cup based on world rankings
3 conditions
gut-feeling
conscious thought
unconscious thought
½ were labeled as experts
½ were labeled as non-experts
20 second exposure to world rankings for all participants,
Gut feeling group: required to immediate provide prediction
Conscious group: provided with 2 minutes before answering
Unconscious group: provided with 2 minute distractor task before providing an answer
Unconscious analysis = gathers and weighs ideas better than conscious thought, though there are exceptions
Conscious analysis better with:
- numerical information (e.g. gambling)
- when the decision involves many criteria
Self-Reference Effect
We can more easily recall items that are associated with ourselves
e. g. if presented a list of adjectives, we more easily remember ones that relate to ourselves
e. gwe more easily remember others we share a birthday with
Certain portions of the brain are activated when engaging in self-referencing behaviors
*possibly to aid in better organizing self-related information or to make it easier to recall these items later
Similar to Group-referencing effect
oBetter memory for information encoded in reference to a group to which we belong
Self (general) & Cross-cultural
Personality traits
•more popular in western societies
Relationships, attitudes, values, physical attributes, genes
•seems to be cross-cultural
Geographically stable vs. geographically unstable
•Stable individuals: identify with more external traits
•Unstable individuals: identify with more personal, internal, traits
Possible selves
Actual self & Potential Selves
Self-guides act as sources of motivation in deciding what to aim for or avoid
*Ideal self – type of person one ideally wants to be
*Ought self – the type of person we should be
duty, obligation, responsibility
*Feared/undesired self – the person we do not want to become
Self-discrepancy theory
Higgins
Discrepancy between actual-ideal selves
•Dejection-related emotions
•Sadness, disappointment
Discrepancy between actual-ought selves
•Agitation-related emotions
•Nervous, worried, tense
•Anxiety stems from external pressures
Attributions, depending on reason for discrepancy
Internal–sad
External–discontent, anger for ought self
TV and videogames help provide distraction from discrepancies
•Although distractions can reinforce or emphasize this discrepancy as well
•Videogames allow people to “try out” their ideal selves
Imagery perspectives
1st person vs. 3rd person (similar to construal-level theory)
Perspectives of change
•When we feel that we were a different person in the past, we view the changed self in the 3rd person
•Viewing past in the 3rd person can help motivate change
Seeing future success
•Similar effects as seeing the past
•Viewing future self in 3rd person motivates for change
Self-talk and social anxiety-provoking events
•Viewing an event in the 3rd person helps decrease (social) anxiety
Self-regulation
“self-control” and “self-regulation” sometimes used interchangeably, but self-control is only one aspect of self-regulation
Feedback Loop, 3 components:
standards
monitoring
strength
A person compares self against standards,
operates to bring one’s self closer to those standards, and then compares again until one’s goal is reached
Self-regulation plays a key role in relationships, mental health, and school performance
e.g., Delayed gratification for long-term rewards
Dale and Baumeister, Chapter on Self-Regulation
Anorexia = poorly regulated control looking at self, constantly looping but never achieving its goal
ADHD = cannot regulate attention
Bulimia = lack of self-control/regulation of food intake
Depression = cannot regulate negative thoughts of self, internalize problems, but externalize thoughts
Risky behavior
Kleptomania
Abstinence programs = self-regulation is flawed, so must avoid altogether. Programs support the belief that once you give in, you lose complete regulation for that behavior.
*Need for abstinence sends message that you are incapable and need to let go of control
Ego Depletion
We have limitations on cognitive resources, and expending energy self-regulating impairs subsequent attempts at self-regulation
e.g. displaying cookies and radishes to participants
*requiring some only to eat the radishes,
•asked to solve a puzzle that is impossible to complete
•those who resisted the cookies give up sooner
e.g. engagement in a self-control task resulted in
decreased duration of squeezing exercise hand-grips
e. g. decreased intellectual performance
e. g. those who engaged in earlier ego depletion tasks, and are then asked to engage in a self-presentation task are rated as being less likeable
Ostracism (ignoring) of others is linked with ego depletion
*activity of ostracizing others isn’t natural, takes effort
Ego depletion linked with decreased control of anger and aggression
•We are less helpful after experiencing ego depletion
Making choices is linked with ego depletion
• Requires us to reject/deny ourselves many choices, making it harder and harder to do so over time
Factors Relevant to Reducing Ego Depletion Effects
Motivation
•If a task is important to us, we seem to be able to draw on reserves and perform better
Belief in Unlimited Willpower
*results in displays of lower ego depletion
Conserving self-regulation
•Prior to big decisions, we may reduce our self-regulatory behaviors
Exercising self-regulation
•Like working out a muscle with practice
•Affiliated with higher education and healthier lifestyles
Possible role of glucose
•Decrease in glucose = ego depletion
•Intake of sugar (i.e. sugary drink) = increased self-regulation
•Simply tasting glucose and without ingestion is linked with increased ego reserves
*Body seems to be expecting increased glucose
Restraint Bias
The tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control impulsive behavior.
An inflated self-control belief may lead to greater exposure to temptation, and increased impulsiveness.
Therefore, the restraint bias has bearing on addiction.
e.g., someone might experiment with drugs, simply because they believe they can resist any potential addiction
The Power of Implemented Intentions and Goal Pursuit
If one has a strong goal, it is advantageous to form implementation intentions
*aka, the specifics relating to that goal (if, where, when, how)
Useful in controlling behaviors
emotion regulation
social anxiety
Effect of Negative Implementation Intentions
•Similar to ironic process system – sets up barriers that do the opposite of what we are intending
Promoting vs. prevention
Promotion focus = self-regulation aimed to encourage ideal self-guides, such as hopes, dreams, and wishes
Prevention focus = self-regulation aimed to encourage ought self-guides and aims to avoid insecurities via duties, responsibilities, needs etc
