The scientific attitude, statistics, cognitive biases Unit 0-2 Flashcards
know all of them
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
What is a scientific attitude?
Be skeptical, not cynical
be curious, not gullible
What matters is not our opinions but the truths revealed by questioning and testing
Curiosity
Asking questions
Skepticism
Sifting reality from fantasy and demanding evidence
Humility
accepting incorrect predictions
Critical Thinking
Thinking that examines assumptions, appraises the sources, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we knew that it would happen
Overconfidence
When we think we know more than we do, driving us to be quick rather than correct.
Confirmation bias
Seeing only what we want to see/ searching ONLY for information that proves the hypothesis correct
Perceiving order in random events
In random data, we will look for patterns even when they don’t exist because making sense of our world relieves stress.
The scientific method
self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis.
Peer reviewers
Scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy
Theories
An explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is… a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.
Hypotheses are crucial because they allow psychologists to conduct research that either supports or challenges a theory.
Falsifiability
A falsifiable hypothesis can be disproven through evidence.
Operational definitions
Clear definitions of how things will be measured in an experiment
Replication
The process of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained
Experiment
a method where researchers manipulate one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable, helping to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Independent Variable
The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter (the thing you are testing)
Variable
The variable that is measured to see how it is affected by changes in the IV (the thing you are measuring)
Non-experimental methods
collected through observation
Case study
A case study involves an in-depth investigation of a single individual or group.
Naturalistic Observation
Observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention.
Why are case studies critical?
Why it’s important: It provides detailed insights but may not be generalizable.
Advantages of Naturalistic Observation
Reduces the likelihood of participants altering their behavior due to being studied.
Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation
Lack of control over variables can make it hard to establish causation.
Observer bias
BIG DATA
By examining habits through big data, we can learn about vast numbers of people without disclosing anyone’s identity.
Surveys
gathering data through questionnaires
Correlation
A statistical relationship between two variables. When two things are correlated, changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.
Meta-Analysis
used to analyze the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion
sample
smaller group chosen from a larger population to represent the whole group.
Representative sample
provides an accurate picture of the larger population
sampling bias
Flawed process that leads to a sample that is not representative of the population
Convenience sampling
only selecting readily available participants
What will a representative sample look like?
A miniture population
What do psychologists use to avoid bias?
Random Sampling
Social-desirability bias
Responding in ways that feel more acceptable by society or what they assume the researcher may want
Self-report bias
When people report their behavior inaccurately, either because they forget or want to create an image for themselves
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn.
Experimenter Bias
Experimenter bias happens when researchers’ expectations influence the outcome of a study.
Positive Correlation
A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other also increases. For example, as hours of study increase, grades tend to increase.
Negative Correlation
A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other decreases. For example, as the number of hours spent watching TV increases, grades tend to decrease.
What does negative correlation mean
Negative means two things move in opposite directions
What does positive correlation mean
Positive means both things move in the same direction
Scatter plot
Graphical representation of the relationship between two variables.
Each point on the scatterplot represents an observation.
The pattern of the points reveals the type and strength of the correlation.
Correlation Coeffcient
numerical value that represents the strength and direction of a correlation. It ranges from -1 to +1.
What does a value close to +1 indicate?
indicates a strong positive correlation
What does a value close to -1 indicate?
indicates a strong negative correlation
What does a value around 0 indicate?
indicates no correlation
What is correlation always denoted as
r=
Range of correlation coefficient?
It ranges from -1 to +1.
Illusory correlation
Occurs when people perceive a relationship between two variables even when none exists. For example, believing that a full moon causes strange behavior.
Regression toward the mean
This is the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward the average.
ex: if a student scores exceptionally high on one test, their next score is likely to be closer to their average performance.
Confounding variable
External factor that could influence the results of an experiment, making it difficult to establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship.
Experimental group
The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.
Control group
The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment allows researchers to compare results and draw conclusions about the treatment’s effect.
Random Assignment
Participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group to ensure that each group is similar before the treatment.
What is the importance of random assignment?
Minimizes preexisting differences between the groups, ensuring that any observed effects are due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors.
Placebo
A harmless, inactive substance or treatment is given to the control group to compare its effects with the actual treatment.
Ex: sugar pill in a drug trial
Placebo effect
when a person has a response to a fake treatment
Single-Blind Procedure
Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.
Double-Blind Procedure
Neither participants nor researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.
Validity
if it measures what it claims to measure
