THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Flashcards
1
Q
What is psychology?
A
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
- Behavior includes all
of our outward or overt actions and reactions - Mental processes refers to all the internal, covert (hidden) activity of
our minds
2
Q
Goals
A
1.describe
2.explain
3.predict
4.control
3
Q
Plato, Aristotle, and Descartes
A
understand or explain the human mind and its
connection to the physical body
4
Q
Gustav Fechner
A
Performing some of the first scientific experiments that would form a basis for experimentation in psychology with his studies of perception.
5
Q
Hermann von Helmholtz
A
Performed ground
breaking experiments in visual and auditory perception
6
Q
Wilhelm Wundt
A
- Apply scientific principles to the study of the human mind
- Consciousness, the state of being aware of external events, could be broken
down into thoughts, experiences, emotions, and other basic elements. - Objective introspection
- Father of psychology
7
Q
Objective introspection
A
The process of objectively examining and measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities
8
Q
titchener
A
- Structuralism: The focus of study was the structure of the mind.
- Experience could
be broken down into its individual emotions and sensations - Objective introspection could be used on thoughts as well as on physical sensations
9
Q
Margaret F. Washburn
A
- 1894: first woman PHD psychology
- 1908: book on animal behaviour- “ the animal mind’’
10
Q
First lab
A
1879: leipzig, germany
11
Q
William James
A
- Functionalalism: the mind helps people adapt, work, and function in real-world situations.
- Consciousness is a continuous, ever-changing flow and difficult to study scientifically.
- Principles of Psychology textbook
12
Q
Functionalism was influenced by?
A
Darwin: Functionalism was influenced by natural selection, suggesting behavioral traits aiding survival could be passed down
13
Q
Mary Whiton Calkins
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First female APA President (1905)
14
Q
Francis Cecil Sumner
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First African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology (1920, Clark University).
15
Q
Kenneth & Mamie Clark
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Studied the negative effects of segregation on African American children.
16
Q
George (Jorge) Sanchez:
A
1940s: Researched cultural biases in intelligence testing for Hispanic students.
17
Q
Max Wertheimer
A
- Gestalt Psychology:
- Principle: “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
- Psychological processes like perception & sensation cannot be broken into smaller parts without losing meaning.
- Gestalt Therapy
18
Q
Gestalt Psychology
A
- focuses on studying whole patterns rather than breaking them into smaller elements.
- People naturally seek patterns and organization in sensory information.
19
Q
Sigmund Freud
A
- Father of Psychoanalysis: modern psychotherapy (helping people gain insight into their behavior).
- Unconscious Mind: Proposed that people repress threatening urges & desires into the unconscious, which later cause mental & emotional issues.
- Childhood Development: Believed personality is formed in the first 6 years of life, and early experiences shape future behavior.
20
Q
Alfred Adler
A
Focused on individual psychology & inferiority complex.
21
Q
Carl Jung
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Developed analytical psychology & the concept of the collective unconscious.
22
Q
Anna Freud
A
Started the ego movement, leading to personality development theories.
23
Q
Erik Erikson
A
Expanded Freud’s ideas into the psychosocial development theory.
24
Q
Ivan Pavlov
A
Reflexes can be conditioned (learned) through association.
25
Ivan pavlov experiment [classical conditioning]
1. Before Conditioning: Dogs salivate when given food.
2. During Conditioning: Metronome + Food → Salivation (repeated).
3. After Conditioning: Metronome → Salivation (without food).
4. Key Concept: Conditioned Reflex – A learned involuntary response to a new stimulus.
26
John B. Watson
1. Behaviorism: Psychology should focus on observable behavior, not consciousness or the unconscious.
2. Inspired by Pavlov: Applied conditioning principles to human behavior.
3. Little Albert Experiment (1920)
4. Phobias are learned behaviors.
27
Little Albert Experiment (1920)
1. Goal: Prove that phobias are learned, not unconscious conflicts.
2. Method: Baby exposed to a white rat + loud noise = Fear.
3. Result: Little Albert developed a phobia of rats & other fuzzy objects.
28
Mary Cover Jones
1. Conducted the Little Peter experiment.
2. Counterconditioning: Used pleasant stimuli (food) to gradually eliminate fear of a white rabbit.
3. Legacy: He became a pioneer of behavior therapy, influencing modern treatments for phobias.
29
Behaviorism’s Impact
1. Influential today in fields like cognitive psychology, therapy, and education.
2. Stimulus-Response Learning remains foundational in behavioral therapy and habit formation.
30
Psychodynamic Perspective
1. Focuses on unconscious mind and early childhood experiences.
2. The modern approach emphasizes sense of self and relationships rather than sexual motivations.
3. Suggests links between neurobiology and psychodynamic concepts.
31
Behavioral Perspective
1. Based on observable behaviors and their modification.
2. Classical conditioning (Pavlov, Watson) and operant conditioning (Skinner—reinforcement & punishment).
3. Behavior is shaped by consequences (reward & punishment).
32
Humanistic Perspective
1. Known as the "third force" in psychology.
2. Focuses on free will and self-actualization (Maslow, Rogers).
3. Aims at self-improvement and self-awareness.
33
Cognitive Perspective
1. Focuses on thinking, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making.
2. Linked to cognitive neuroscience (MRI, fMRI, PET scans to study brain activity).
3. A key force in modern psychology.
34
Sociocultural Perspective
1. Studies the influence of culture, society, and social interactions on behavior.
2. Social norms, group influence, and cultural values shape behavior.
3. Bystander effect (Darley & Latané, 1968)—diffusion of responsibility in groups.
35
Darley & Latané,
Bystander effect 1968
36
Biopsychological Perspective
1. Examines the biological basis of behavior (hormones, genetics, brain chemistry).
2. Studies links between mental disorders and brain function (e.g., schizophrenia).
3. Related to cognitive neuroscience and neurobiology.
37
lev vygotsky
1978: social cultural theory of childrens development
38
Evolutionary Perspective
1. Explains behaviors based on natural selection and adaptation.
2. Survival traits (e.g., fear of snakes, mate selection strategies).
3. Research on infidelity, attraction, and relationships.
39
Eclectic Perspective
1. Combines multiple psychological approaches to best understand behavior.
2. Recognizes that no single perspective explains everything.
40
Psychologist
1. Holds a doctorate degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.)
2. No medical training
Specializes in various psychology fields (not just counseling)
3. Works in research, teaching, therapy, and applied psychology
41
Psychiatrist
1. Medical doctor (M.D. or D.O.)
2. Can prescribe medications
3. Focuses on diagnosis & treatment of mental disorders
42
Psychiatric Social Worker
1. Holds a master’s degree in social work (MSW)
2. Specializes in environmental factors affecting mental health (poverty, stress, drug abuse)
43
Basic vs. Applied Research
1. Basic Research: Expands scientific knowledge (e.g., how memory works)
2. Applied Research: Solves real-world problems (e.g., improving study methods)
44
45
Specializations in Psychology
1.Health Psychology
2. Sports Psychology
3. Forensic Psychology
4. Industrial-Organizational Psychology
5. Human Factors Psychology
46
The Scientific Method in Psychology
1. Perceiving the Question: Identifying an interesting phenomenon to investigate.
2. Forming a Hypothesis: Making an educated guess based on observations.
3. Testing the Hypothesis: conducting experiments or surveys to collect data.
4. Drawing Conclusions: Analyzing results to determine if the hypothesis is supported.
5. Reporting Results: Sharing findings to allow replication and further research.
47
Research Methods in Psychology
1. Naturalistic Observation: observing behavior in its natural setting.
2. Advantage: Realistic behavior
3. Disadvantage: Observer bias, lack of control
4. Observer Effect
5. Observer Bias
48
Laboratory Observation
1. Studying behavior in a controlled environment.
2. Advantage: More control over variables
3. Disadvantage: Artificial behavior
49
Case Studies
1. In-depth analysis of an individual or small group.
2. Advantage: Rich detail, useful for rare cases
3. Disadvantage: Cannot generalize results
50
Surveys
1. Collecting self-reported data from many people.
2. Advantage: Large amounts of data quickly
3. Disadvantage: Risk of dishonesty, biased sampling
51
Correlations
1. A statistical technique used to find relationships between variables.
2. Purpose: Helps researchers see patterns in numerical data.
3. Correlation Coefficient (r): Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
52
Types of Correlation
1. Positive Correlation: Both variables move in the same direction (↑↑ or ↓↓).
2. Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases (↑↓).
3. No Correlation: No relationship (r ≈ 0).
- Scatterplot: A graph used to visualize correlations.
- Correlation ≠ Causation: Just because two variables are related doesn’t mean one causes the other.
53
The Experiment
1. The only research method that can determine causation.
2. Independent Variable (IV): The factor that is manipulated.
3. Dependent Variable (DV): The factor that is measured.
Ensures participants have an equal chance of being in either group.
54
Groups in experiment
1. Experimental Group: Receives the independent variable (treatment).
2. Control Group: Does not receive the independent variable; used for comparison.
3. Random Assignment: Ensures participants have an equal chance of being in either group.
55
Confounding Variables
Other factors that might affect results.
56
Placebo Effect
When participants believe they are experiencing an effect just because they expect it.
57
Experimenter Effect:
Researcher’s expectations unintentionally influence results.
58
Experimental Hazards & Controls
1. Confounding Variables
2. Placebo Effect
3. Experimenter Effect
59
Ways to Control Bias in experiment
1. Single-blind study: Participants don’t know if they are in the control or experimental group.
2. Double-blind study: Neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment.
60
Why Ethics Matter
Ensures no harm comes to participants, maintaining psychology’s credibility.
61
IRBs
Institutional Review Boards:Approve studies for ethical safety
62
Ethical Guidelines
1. People come first, research second – Weigh participant well-being against study benefits.
2. Informed consent – Participants must understand what they’re agreeing to.
3. Justified deception – Only if necessary, followed by debriefing.
4. Right to withdraw – Participants can leave at any time.
5. Protection from harm – Must prevent or inform participants of risks.
6. Debriefing required – Explain true study purpose afterward.
7. Confidentiality – Protect personal data.
8. Correcting harm – Researchers must help if the study causes distress.
