THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Flashcards
1
Q
Nervous system
A
A network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.
2
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Neuroscience
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A branch of life sciences that studies the structure and function of the brain, neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue.
3
Q
Biological psychology (behavioral neuroscience)?
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A branch of neuroscience focused on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning.
4
Q
Who first theorized that the nervous system is made up of individual cells?
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Santiago Ramón y Cajal in 1887.
5
Q
What are the three common components of most cells?
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Nucleus, cell body (soma), and cell membrane.
6
Q
Neuron
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A specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages.
7
Q
Dendrites
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Branch-like structures that receive messages from other cells.
8
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Soma
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The cell body of the neuron that contains the nucleus and keeps the cell alive.
9
Q
Axon
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A fiber that carries messages out to other cells.
10
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Axon terminals (synaptic knobs)
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The ends of the axon responsible for communicating with other nerve cells.
11
Q
Glial cells
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Cells that support neurons by providing structure, nutrients, insulation, and cleanup of dead neurons.
12
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Radial glial cells
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Cells that guide migrating neurons to form outer layers of the brain during development.
13
Q
How do glial cells relate to mental disorders?
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- Major depressive disorder: fewer glial cells in some brain areas.
- Schizophrenia: increased number of glial cells in some regions.
14
Q
What are the two special types of glial cells?
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- Oligodendrocytes (central nervous system—brain & spinal cord).
- Schwann cells (peripheral nervous system—body).
15
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myelin
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A fatty substance that insulates and protects axons, speeding up neural messages.
16
Q
What are tracts and nerves?
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- Tracts: Bundles of myelinated axons in the central nervous system.
- Nerves: Bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system.
17
Q
How does Schwann cell myelin differ from oligodendrocyte myelin?
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Schwann cell myelin can help damaged nerve fibers reconnect, but oligodendrocyte myelin cannot.
18
Q
multiple sclerosis (MS)
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A disease where the immune system destroys the myelin sheath, causing loss of neural function.
19
Q
What is the resting potential of a neuron?
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A state where the neuron is not firing, and the inside of the cell is mostly negative, while the outside is mostly positive.
20
Q
resting potential
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Sodium ion channels open, allowing Na⁺ to rush inside, reversing the charge inside the cell (action potential).
21
Q
action potential
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The electrical charge reversal that travels down the axon in a chain reaction.
22
Q
How fast does the neural message travel?
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From 2 mph in small neurons to 270 mph in larger neurons.
23
Q
What happens after the action potential passes?
A
Sodium channels close, potassium (K⁺) ions leave, and the neuron returns to resting potential.
24
Q
What is the all-or-none principle?
A
A neuron either fires at full strength or does not fire at all.
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How does strong vs. weak stimulation affect firing?
stronger stimulation makes the neuron fire more frequently and activates more neurons.
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synaptic vesicles
Sac-like structures in the axon terminal that contain neurotransmitters
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What is the function of neurotransmitters
They transmit messages between neurons or between neurons and other body cells.
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synapse (or synaptic gap)
A fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another.
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How do neurotransmitters cross the synapse?
They are released from synaptic vesicles when an action potential reaches the axon terminal, then bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane.
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receptor sites
Proteins on the postsynaptic membrane that allow only specific neurotransmitter molecules to bind.
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What happens when neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites?
Ion channels open, allowing sodium to enter the neuron, triggering an action potential.
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Can neurotransmitters communicate with non-neuronal cells?
Yes, they can activate muscle or gland cells.
32
What are excitatory and inhibitory synapses?
1. Excitatory synapse: Turns the next cell "on" (triggers an action potential).
2. Inhibitory synapse: Turns the next cell "off" (prevents an action potential).
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What is the first neurotransmitter identified?
Acetylcholine (ACh).
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acetylcholine (ACh)
Stimulates skeletal muscles to contract but slows heart muscle contractions.
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How does curare affect acetylcholine
It blocks ACh receptor sites, preventing muscle contraction and causing paralysis.
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How does black widow spider venom affect acetylcholine?
causes excessive release of ACh, leading to convulsions and possible death.
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agonist
A chemical that mimics or enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter
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antagonist
A chemical that blocks or reduces the effects of a neurotransmitter
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How is acetylcholine (ACh) related to memory?
It is found in the hippocampus and is important for memory, arousal, and attention.
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dopamine (DA)
A neurotransmitter that affects movement, pleasure, and mental health.
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What happens if there is too little dopamine?
It can result in Parkinson’s disease.
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What happens if there is too much dopamine?
It may lead to schizophrenia-like symptoms.
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serotonin (5-HT)
A neurotransmitter involved in sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite.
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What condition is linked to low levels of serotonin?
Depression.
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glutamate
the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system.
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What happens if there is too much glutamate?
It can cause neuronal damage and may contribute to Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s disease.
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What are the functions of glutamate?
Learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity.
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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
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How does GABA affect anxiety?
It has a calming effect and is targeted by tranquilizers and alcohol.
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How does alcohol affect GABA?
Alcohol enhances GABA’s effect, causing sedation and inhibition
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neuropeptides
Substances that can act as neurotransmitters, hormones, or modulators of other neurotransmitters.
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endorphins
Neuropeptides that act as natural painkillers
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How do endorphins reduce pain
They bind to receptors that block pain signals.
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Why are heroin and morphine addictive?
They mimic endorphins, and long-term use reduces the body’s natural production of them.
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What is reuptake?
The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed into synaptic vesicles for reuse.
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How does cocaine affect dopamine?
It blocks dopamine reuptake, making dopamine stay in the synapse longer, increasing its effects.
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What is enzymatic degradation?
When specific enzymes break down neurotransmitters in the synapse.
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Why doesn’t acetylcholine (ACh) use reuptake?
Because muscle activity needs to happen quickly, ACh is broken down by an enzyme instead.
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SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)
Antidepressants that block serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin levels in the synapse.
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How do benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium) affect anxiety?
They enhance GABA’s inhibitory effect, calming areas of the brain responsible for anxiety.
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How can drugs act as agonists or antagonists?
1. Agonists mimic or enhance neurotransmitter effects.
2. Antagonists block neurotransmitter effects.
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How does location in the brain affect a neurotransmitter’s function?
he same neurotransmitter can have different effects depending on where it acts in the nervous system
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What are the two main parts of the nervous system
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
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What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
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What is the function of the CNS?
It controls life-sustaining functions, thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
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What does the PNS do?
It transmits information to and from the CNS.
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What is the function of the brain in the CNS?
It interprets information, makes decisions, and sends commands to muscles and organs.
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What is neuroplasticity?
The brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to experience and trauma.
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What is the spinal cord responsible for?
It serves as a message pipeline and controls reflexes
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What are the two sections of the spinal cord?
Outer section (white matter) carries messages, and the inner section (gray matter) controls reflexes.
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Why do reflexes occur in the spinal cord instead of the brain?
To allow for a quicker response and prevent further injury
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What are the two divisions of the PNS?
Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System.
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What does the Somatic Nervous System do?
t controls voluntary muscle movements and transmits sensory information.
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What does the Autonomic Nervous System do?
It controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing
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What are the two divisions of the ANS?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions.
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What does the sympathetic division do?
It prepares the body for stress (fight-or-flight response).
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What does the parasympathetic division do?
It maintains normal body functions and conserves energy.
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What are the three types of neurons?
Afferent (sensory) neurons, efferent (motor) neurons, and interneurons.
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What is the function of afferent neurons?
They carry sensory messages to the spinal cord.
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What is the function of efferent neurons?
They carry motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
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What do interneurons do?
They connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS.
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Can the CNS repair itself?
Yes, due to neuroplasticity, but it was once thought to be permanent.
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How can spinal cord damage be repaired?
Through implanted nerve fibers or Schwann cells
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What is the role of stem cells in nervous system repair?
They may help regenerate damaged brain or spinal cord cells.
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The PNS consists of all nerves and neurons outside the brain and spinal cord. It allows communication between the central nervous system (CNS) and sensory/motor systems.
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What are the two main divisions of the PNS?
The somatic nervous system (voluntary muscle control) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) (involuntary muscle, organ, and gland control).
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What does the somatic nervous system control?
It controls voluntary movements via skeletal muscles.
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What are the two main pathways of the somatic nervous system?
1. Sensory pathway – carries messages from senses to the CNS (afferent neurons).
2. Motor pathway – carries messages from the CNS to voluntary muscles (efferent neurons).
82
What are voluntary and involuntary muscle movements?
Voluntary muscles move at will, but they can also move involuntarily in reflex responses.
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What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?
It controls involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.
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What are the two subdivisions of the ANS?
1. Sympathetic division – prepares the body for stress ("fight-or-flight").
2. Parasympathetic division – restores normal bodily functions ("rest-and-digest").
85
What does the sympathetic nervous system do during stress?
It increases heart rate, dilates pupils, increases breathing, redirects blood to muscles, and stimulates adrenal glands to release stress hormones.
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What functions are suppressed by the sympathetic system?
Digestion, saliva production, and excretion.
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What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
It restores the body to normal functioning after stress.
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What are some effects of parasympathetic activation?
Slows heart rate, constricts pupils, reactivates digestion and excretion
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What everyday functions does the parasympathetic system control?
Regular heartbeat, normal breathing, digestion, and excretion.
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What is the function of the endocrine system?
It regulates bodily functions through hormone secretion into the bloodstream.
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How does endocrine communication differ from nervous system communication?
Endocrine communication is slower but has widespread effects, while nervous system communication is fast and localized.
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Why is the pituitary gland called the "master gland"?
It controls or influences all other endocrine glands.
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What hormones does the pituitary gland release?
1. Oxytocin (childbirth, bonding, and milk release).
2. Vasopressin (regulates water balance).
3. Growth hormone (controls growth).
4. Hormones that stimulate the gonads (sex hormones).
94
What is the function of the thyroid gland?
Regulates metabolism and growth by releasing thyroxin.
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What does the pineal gland regulate?
Biological rhythms, such as the sleep-wake cycle, by releasing melatonin.
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What hormones does the pancreas release?
Insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar levels.
95
What happens if the pancreas releases too little or too much insulin?
1. Too little insulin → Diabetes (high blood sugar).
2. Too much insulin → Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar).
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Lesioning Studies
1. Destroying specific brain areas in animals to study behavior changes.
2. Method: An electrode sends a strong electrical current to kill neurons.
3. Limitation: Cannot be done on living humans.
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Brain Stimulation
Temporarily disrupting or enhancing brain activity using electrical or magnetic methods.
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Two techniques of brain stimulation
1. Invasive Techniques (Stimulation from Inside)
2. Noninvasive Techniques (Stimulation from Outside)
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Invasive Techniques
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)
1. Electrodes implanted in deep brain areas.
2. Used for Parkinson’s disease, seizure disorders, chronic pain, psychiatric conditions.
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Noninvasive Techniques
1. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Magnetic pulses applied to the cortex.
2. Repetitive TMS (rTMS): Multiple pulses for longer effects.
3. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS): Low electrical current alters brain excitability.
100
CT Scan (Computed Tomography)
1. X-ray images create brain “slices.”
2. Detects stroke damage, tumors, injuries, skull fractures.
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MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
1. Uses a strong magnetic field & radio waves.
2. Provides detailed brain images, detects small strokes.
3. Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): Maps white matter tracts (used for MS, dementia, schizophrenia).
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Mapping Brain Structure
1. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
2. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
3. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
4. Functional MRI (fMRI)
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
1. Electrodes record electrical activity.
2. Used for sleep studies, seizures, brain activity during tasks.
3. Event-Related Potentials (ERPs): Helps study brain response to stimuli.
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Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
1. Detects magnetic fields from brain activity.
2. Used in dementia and autism research.
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
1. Injects radioactive glucose to track energy use in the brain.
2. Shows active brain areas during tasks.
106
Functional MRI (fMRI)
1. Tracks oxygen levels in blood.
2. Creates a “movie” of brain activity over time.
3. Used for Alzheimer’s and schizophrenia research.
107
What is the limbic system, and what functions is it involved in?
The limbic system is a group of structures located under the cortex, involved in emotions, motivation, memory, and learning.
107
Which brain structures are part of the limbic system?
Thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex.
107
What is the function of the thalamus?
The thalamus acts as a relay station for incoming sensory information, processing it before sending it to the appropriate areas of the cortex.
108
What happens if the thalamus is damaged?
Damage to the thalamus may result in the loss or partial loss of sensation, such as hearing, sight, touch, or taste.
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Which sense does not pass through the thalamus?
Smell (olfaction) does not pass through the thalamus; it goes directly to the olfactory bulbs.
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Where is the hypothalamus located, and what does it regulate?
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, sleeping, waking, sexual activity, and emotions.
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How does the hypothalamus control hormones?
It regulates the pituitary gland, making it responsible for the overall control of hormone release.
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What is the role of the hippocampus?
The hippocampus is involved in forming long-term declarative memories.
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How is the hippocampus related to Alzheimer’s disease?
Alzheimer’s patients have lower levels of the neurotransmitter ACh in the hippocampus, affecting memory function.
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What does the amygdala do?
Why do people respond to danger quickly, even before conscious awareness?
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Why do people respond to danger quickly, even before conscious awareness?
The amygdala processes sensory information before the upper brain does, enabling fast reactions to threats.
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What happens when the amygdala is damaged?
Animals and humans with amygdala damage show a reduced fear response, as seen in Klüver-Bucy syndrome.
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What is the role of the cingulate cortex?
It is involved in emotional and cognitive processing, selective attention, written word recognition, and working memory.
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Which psychological disorders are linked to the cingulate cortex?
ADHD, schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder.
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cortex
The outermost layer of the brain, responsible for complex thought, perception, and voluntary movement.
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Why does the cortex have wrinkles?
The wrinkling (corticalization) increases the surface area, allowing more neurons to fit inside the skull.
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What connects the two hemispheres of the brain?
The corpus callosum, a thick band of neural fibers that enables communication between the hemispheres.
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What is contralateral organization in the brain?
Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body, such as the left hemisphere controlling the right hand.
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What is the difference between bilateral and ipsilateral processing?
Bilateral processing (e.g., hearing) involves both hemispheres, while ipsilateral processing (e.g., taste) involves only one side
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What is the role of the occipital lobes?
They process visual information from the eyes in the primary visual cortex.
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What happens if the occipital lobe is damaged?
Visual perception may be impaired, as seen in cases where people can describe objects but not recognize them
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What is the role of the parietal lobes?
They process touch, temperature, and body position through the somatosensory cortex.
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What do the temporal lobes control?
The temporal lobes process auditory information and language comprehension (left hemisphere).
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What functions are controlled by the frontal lobes?
Planning, personality, memory storage, decision-making, and emotional regulation.
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What does the prefrontal cortex control?
Emotional regulation and higher cognitive functions.
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Phineas Gage
He suffered frontal lobe damage, which led to emotional instability and personality changes.
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What is perseveration?
The repetition of the same action or thought due to frontal lobe damage.
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What is the role of the motor cortex?
It controls voluntary muscle movements by sending signals to the body.
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mirror neurons
Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform it.
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How are mirror neurons linked to autism?
A faulty mirror neuron system may contribute to social and communication difficulties in autism.
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What are association areas in the cortex responsible for?
They connect sensory input with stored memories, images, and knowledge, helping people make sense of incoming information.
136
Where is Broca’s area located, and what does it do?
In the left frontal lobe (for most people), it controls smooth and fluent speech production.
137
What happens if Broca’s area is damaged?
A person may struggle to produce speech fluently, mispronouncing words and omitting small words, while still understanding language.
138
Where is Wernicke’s area located, and what does it do?
In the left temporal lobe (for most people), it helps with understanding the meaning of words.
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What happens if Wernicke’s area is damaged?
A person can speak fluently but uses incorrect words, making their speech nonsensical.
140
What is spatial neglect?
A condition where a person with damage to the right parietal and occipital lobes ignores everything in their left visual field.
141
Who pioneered split-brain research, and what did he discover?
Roger Sperry found that the left and right hemispheres specialize in different functions, leading to separate processing abilities.
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What functions are controlled by the right hemisphere?
Perception, visualization, spatial awareness, pattern recognition, facial recognition, emotions, and music appreciation.
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What is the role of the corpus callosum?
It connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows them to communicate.
144
Is handedness always linked to brain hemisphere dominance?
No, while most right-handed people have left-hemisphere dominance, some left-handers still have language functions in the left hemisphere.
145
What does ADHD stand for, and what are its main characteristics?
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder involving inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.
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What was ADHD previously called?
It was previously referred to as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD).
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What are the three diagnostic categories of ADHD in the DSM-5?
1. ADHD predominantly hyperactive/impulsive presentation
2. ADHD predominantly inattentive presentation
3. ADHD combined presentation
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How does ADHD change from childhood to adulthood?
ADHD is commonly diagnosed in children but often persists into adolescence and adulthood. While hyperactivity decreases with age, inattention and impulsivity remain.
149
What are some ADHD-related problems adults may face?
1. Strained relationships (family, friends, significant others)
2. Substance abuse issues
3. Traffic accidents
4. Job instability
150
What did a longitudinal study find about men diagnosed with ADHD in childhood?
By age 41, they had worse educational, occupational, economic, and social outcomes, along with more divorces than those without ADHD.
151
What is a growing concern regarding ADHD medications on college campuses?
Non-ADHD students misuse prescription stimulants to enhance focus and concentration, often obtaining them from friends with prescriptions.
151
Which brain regions are associated with ADHD?
1. Prefrontal cortex (primarily on the right side) – regulates attention and cognitive control
2. Basal ganglia – involved in response control
3. Cerebellum – contributes to motor function and attention
4. Corpus callosum – facilitates communication between brain hemispheres
151
Why has the American Academy of Neurology opposed ADHD medications in non-ADHD individuals?
The increasing number of ADHD diagnoses and prescriptions has led to their misuse as "neuroenhancers" in healthy children and adolescents.
151
What do neuroimaging studies reveal about ADHD brains?
Studies show reduced size in the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and corpus callosum.
151
What types of markers have researchers investigated to determine ADHD causes?
Biological, cognitive, and behavioral markers.
151
What methods do researchers use to assess ADHD?
1. Neuroimaging techniques: MRI, fMRI, PET scans
2. Electrophysiological studies: EEG, ERPs
3. Cognitive tests: Attention-related tasks
152
What cognitive markers have been researched in ADHD?
Attention problems and issues with vigilance (difficulty "watching out" for important things
152
What cognitive difficulties do individuals with ADHD face?
Difficulty in:
Staying on task
Maintaining effort
Engaging in self-control
152
Why are researchers reconsidering the causes of ADHD?
Studies suggest multiple causes and different brain pathways leading to ADHD.
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What environmental factors may contribute to ADHD?
Low-level lead exposure
Genetic influences
Heredity and familial factors
Personality traits
153
What other variables are being examined in ADHD research?
Sleep and circadian rhythms
Environmental light exposure
How ADHD symptoms are characterized and diagnosed
153
How has ADHD research changed in recent years?
Instead of studying single causes, researchers now examine interactions between multiple factors.
