The Rise Of Mussolini And The Creation Of A Fascist Dictatorship 1919-26 Flashcards
1
Q
Tensions due to end of WWI
A
- ex-soldiers felt betrayed
- campaign against Austria had been funded through foreign loans + printing more money
- debt + inflation
- rising tension in the south as returning conscripts wanted promised land reforms - forcefully occupied farmland
- in the north there was tension between exempted men vs returning soldiers
- lack of unity
2
Q
Paris Peace Conference at Versailles
A
- January 1919
- PM Vittorio Orlando argued that’s all land promised in the 1915 Treaty of London should be given + Fiume
- it had a small Italian population and so should be given on the principle of nationality
- US president Woodrow Wilson + British PM David Lloyd + French PM Georges Clemenceau - rejected claim on Fiume + Dodecanese Islands + part of the Balkans
- Italy’s war contributions didn’t justify its territorial claims
- Orlando + Sonnino argued he needed the land to justify the war effort to the Italians
- Orlando walked out of the conference in April 1919
3
Q
Paris Peace Conference 1919 May onwards
A
- Britain + France took Germany’s African colonies in Italy’s absence
- Orlando tried to return in May 1919 - his proposals were ignored
- June 1919 Vittorio Orlando resigned as PM
- Italy acquired Trente + Trieste + Istria + northern Dalmatia as part of the Treaty of London 1915
- failure to gain Fiume or African colonies undermined the liberal gov
4
Q
Mutilated Victory Myth
A
- used by Italian nationalists and Italian irredendists to describe their dissatisfaction concerning territorial rewards in return for war efforts
- national shame
- disgraced the 600k soldiers who lost their lives in the war
- made the liberal gov seem weak
5
Q
Francesco Nitti
A
- replaced Orlando as PM
- Italy’s weak economy + need for coal + money of the Allies meant that Nitti played down Italy’s claims
- wanted to maintain strong relation with the Allies
- allowed Yugoslavia to take Dalmatia
- allowed Fiume to be a neutral city under the protection of the League of Nations
- reduced military spending + issued amnesty to Italian soldiers that had deserted
- condemned as the Cagoia - coward
- fascists would focus on the mutilated victory idea
6
Q
Occupation of Fiume
A
- nationalist right-wing group challenged the gov in Rome - young men + demobilised soldiers
- most prominent leader was Gabriele d’Annunzio - had led protests in 1914 calling for Italy’s entry to WW1
- 12 September 1919 Gabriele + 2k men made of ex-soldiers + Futurists + students seized the port of Fiume without fight
- the Italian gov failed to act for 15 months - d’Annunzio + small army removed on Christmas 1920
- Gabriele had shown the frailties of the gov + power of assertive nationalism
7
Q
What did Mussolini learn from Gabriele d’Annunzio
A
- assertive nationalism
- use of squadrons
- balcony speeches
- use of reporters for PR
- posters as propaganda
- processions
- parties
8
Q
Futurists
A
- cultural + artistic movement - formed in 1909 by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
- celebrated violence + patriotism + destruction
- believed war would bring about a new more militaristic society
- despised liberal system + idea of mutilated victory
- some of the founding members of the Fascists - disappointed that Mussolini wasn’t more radical
9
Q
Gabriele d’Annunzio
A
- was the most famous poet in Italy during WW1
- led protests calling for Italy’s entry into WW1
- believed war would be a unifying force that would lead to a more militaristic society
- dropped 400k leaflets propaganda over Vienna in a plane
- fascist slogan Me ne frego - I don’t give a damn
- emotional speeches
10
Q
Post war economic crisis
A
- millions of demobilised soldiers flooded the job market
- by November 1919 unemployment reached 2 million
- many companies like Fiat + Ansaldo + Ilva struggled to stay afloat post-war
- Ansaldo + Ilva - major munitions companies - collapsed in 1921 causing a banking crisis
- Banca Di Sconta - major bank - had been tied to Ansaldo - forced to close
- economic recession in late 1920
11
Q
Post-War Social Discontent
A
- after WW1 ended, the previously jailed anarchist + socialist radicals were released
- major strikes + factory occupations + violent riots
- membership of the socialist unions had grown from 250k in 1918 to 2 million by 1920
- in 1919 rising food prices had caused riots in northern + central Italy - protestors looted granaries +shops
12
Q
Specific strikes 1920
A
- January railway strikes
- April + September telegraph worker strikes
- July army troops’ strike
- September (largest strike) - factory worker strike with over 400k workers taking over factories + flying red communist flag + black anarchist flags for nearly 4 weeks - gov eventually ended the strike
13
Q
Biennio Rosso
A
- translates to Two Red Years
- period between 1919-20
- when left-wing socialist + communist organisations were at their peak
- created fear + chaos that encouraged people to support the fascists for stability
- fascists were violently confronting the left-wing movement
- liberal gov trying to find a compromise with the workers
14
Q
Post-War Countryside
A
- the gov had made big land reform promises during WW1
- only some land made available for peasants to buy - didn’t satisfy the number of farmer demanding land for farming
- many peasants seized land from the owners - simply marched into barren + uncultivated land and planted a flag and set to work
- land occupations alarmed wealthy landowners
15
Q
Rural socialist unions
A
- rural socialist unions were particularly strong in areas like Ferrara + Bologna - controlled employment of rural labourers
- excluded farm labourers that weren’t socialist union members
- carried out violent attacks on workers + farmers who refused to join union
- landowners felt threatened by rising rural socialist militancy + weak gov response
16
Q
Changed before 1919 election
A
- Italian parliamentary elections in 1919 took place against a backdrop of political upheaval
- introduction of new law allowing Italians who served at front + men over 21 to vote
- meant that the amount of people allowed to vote increased by 11 million
- Changed voting method to Proportional Representation
17
Q
Proportional Representation
A
- an electoral system
- voters cast their votes for political parties
- the percentage of the vote that each party receives translates into the percentage of seats that the party receives in the legislature
- makes it difficult for a single party to win a majority
- allows public to have a greater influence on which parties are elected to parliament
18
Q
Partito Popolare Italiano
A
- PPI set up in 1919 - led by priest Luigi Sturzo
- not officially affiliated with the Vatican + didn’t mention the Roman Question in the manifesto
- policy pushed for Catholic interests + supported land reform
- campaigned for more farming areas to be made available to the peasants
- strength of Catholic feeling + popular agitation for land reform made PPI strong
- hostility towards the liberal gov
19
Q
PSI post-war
A
- had become more radical
- refused to work with the liberals post-war
- supported strikes + factory occupations
20
Q
Result and Impact of the 1919 elections
A
- PSI won greatest share of the vote with 32% - led to 156 deputies - 3x amount in 1913
- PPI won 101 seats
- neither party had a majority + weren’t willing to work together in coalition
- old liberal gov remained in power with several coalitions until 1922
- nothing appeared to have actually changed
- Nitti’s gov fell in 1920 and the country turned to Giolitti again
21
Q
Fasci di Combattimento
A
- on March 23 1919 Mussolini put together the representative of approx 20 ex-servicemen’s leagues to form this organisation
- national organisation of ex-soldiers
- his experiences in the trenches made him more nationalistic
22
Q
Trincerocrazia
A
- extreme nature of war + camaraderie felt by those fighting together in war
- a melting away of class divisions in order to focus on Italy
- a sense of war consciousness
- the trinceristi - returning soldiers - had the strength + morals to lead a new Italy
23
Q
Fasci di Combattimento Party Programme
A
- anticlerical + wanted confiscation of church property + abolishment of monarchy + 8 hour working day
- wanted a republic + suffrage extend to women + younger Italians + senate abolishment
- nationalisation of armaments industry + progressive taxation
- confiscation of profits made by large companies in the war
24
Q
Make up of Fasci di Combattimento
A
- weren’t distinguished from other left-wing parties
- only approx 50 people attended the original meeting
- membership reached 3k by June 1919
- predominately made up of arditi - crack troop commandos formed in WW1 - had worn black shirts
- black shirts + skull flag became became the identity of the party
- members commonly known as Blackshirts
25
Q
Squadrismo
A
- fascists formed themselves into small military units + squads
- the members were referred to as squadristi - they answered the socialist threat with extreme violence
26
Q
1919 election fascist outcome
A
- they won less than 5k votes + ZERO seats
- socialists had paraded a coffin symbolism Mussolini’s political career through Milan
27
Q
Squadrismo attack in Milan
A
- April 15 1919 a fascist squad of 250 attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan + burned down offices of Avanti! - 3 socialists + 1 fascist killed
- the Milan attack hadn’t been organised by Mussolini but helped him realise the power of violence
- none of the squadristi were arrested
- the gov made no attempt to close down the groups + didn’t condemn it
- the gov tolerated the squadrismo as they feared the socialist revolution more
28
Q
Mussolini’s armed squads
A
- organised like military units under a ras - commanding officer
- members wore the uniform of a black shirt + carried a revolver + manganello - club
- attacked socialist councils + supporters
- weapons were supplied by local police + army barracks
- key PSI members targeted - beaten + forced to drink castor oil + cases of murder
- in the first 5 months of 1921 200 killed + 1k wounded by the fascist violence
- broke the power of socialism + created myth that the fascists had saved Italy from a socialist revolution
29
Q
Popularity of the squadrismo
A
- wealthy landowners happy to see socialist land leagues destroyed
- brought an end to the attempt for land reform
- the soldiers had saved Italy from the Austrian in WW1 + now saved Italy from the traitors + radicals
- popular with those who feared a socialist revolution
- popular with the elite ruling class - military
30
Q
Political Legitimacy
A
- respectable liberal politicians shared the belief that the squads were restoring law + order + rescuing the country from radicalism
- police stood by and allowed the fascists to attack socialists + sometimes joined in
- success of violence against socialism + shift to the right showed in the May 1921 elections
31
Q
Squad use during the elections
A
- fascists squads attacked socialist campaign meetings + intimidated voters
- police lent vehicles + army gave weapons to the fascists to help
- Italian judiciary showed leniency towards fascists accused of violence against socialists
32
Q
Result of 1921 election
A
- PSI achieved highest number of votes
- fascists achieved 7% of the vote + 35 parliamentary seats
- gave Mussolini new respectability + authority as a member of Parliament
- legitimised fascism as a political force
- as a deputy Mussolini benefited from immunity to prosecution
- a police charge against Mussolini for intent to overthrow the gov by violence was quietly dropped
33
Q
The New Programme
A
- May 1920 the second fascist national congress was adopted
- more conservative + right wing
- dropped any mention of abolishment of the monarchy + attacking the power of the Pope
- more pro-business + compulsory military service
- promised to sell of nationalised business to private investors
- goals of complete unification of the irredente lands
34
Q
Partito Nazionale Fascista
A
- PNF set up in October 1921 - formal political party
- Mussolini aimed to centralise control over the fascist movement
- as opposed to wide conglomeration of radical squads
- founded local branches
- attempted to recruit more respectable members - to advance appeal
35
Q
Extent of Fascist Support
A
- by the end of 1921 membership of the PNF grew to 200k
- appealed to urban middle class + professional white collar workers + small business owners- feared a socialist revolution + PSI increase in local taxes
- middle class + upper class landowners + wealthy farmers- saw fascists as a way to protect their lifestyle + no land reform
- financial support from rich landowners + industrialists - supported fascism’s attempt to break union power
- workers + peasants who opposed the strength of the socialists + violence used against labourers who worked during strikes
36
Q
Fascism Appeal to youth
A
- youth tired of corruption + lethargy of liberal gov
- fascism seen as a new + dynamic alternative
- strong patriotism + hatred of socialists + weak liberal gov + belief in Mussolini
37
Q
Nitti resigns
A
- Nitti resigned on June 9 1920 - replaced by Giolitti
- Giolitti was 80 years old + disliked by nationalists due to his anti-interventionist policy in WW1
- Giolitti used old method of absorption during Biennio Rosso
- during 1920 strikes - compromised with workers + pressured banks to withdraw support for companies not willing to negotiate with workers + refused use of violence
- strikes ended by September 25 1920
38
Q
Backlash to Giolitti’s plan
A
- Catholics + middle class + industrialists + nationalists + landowners were angry
- belief that Giolitti had given in to the workers’ demands
- contrast with the fascists’ use of violence to deal with the socialists
39
Q
Partito Communista Italiano
A
- January 1921 the more radical members of the PSI split to form the Partito Communista Italiano - PCI
- had support from Russia
- closely aligned with the Communist Party - Bolsheviks
- the split in the PSI weakened the political strength of the left-wing movement
40
Q
Creation of PCI consequences
A
- PCI too small to be a political threat via the ballot box or revolution
- appearance of a communist party financed by Russia worked as propaganda for Mussolini
- formation of the PCI was proof that Italy was on the verge of revolution
- Mussolini claimed that Biennio Russo failed due to fascist power - they saved Italy
41
Q
July 1922
A
- PSI + PCI encouraged further pressure on the political system
- called for a 24 hour general strike
- most workers didn’t support it - fear of fascist backlash
- Mussolini claimed it was the actions of the fascists + PNF that speared Italy from revolution
42
Q
Giolitti’s tactics no longer working
A
- ideological split more defined + deep rooted
- Parties were strong on their own - PPI + PNF
- increase in number of parties - difficult to organise a working coalition
- parties didn’t want to work together
- PNF + PCI wanted political turmoil to continue - until parliament collapsed
43
Q
During 1921 election
A
- Giolitti tried to absorb the fascists - offered the members that were running for parliament a place in his national bloc on ballot paper
- after being voted into parliament as a gov backed candidate - Mussolini declared he would vote for the opposition
- parliament was made of 123 socialists + 15 communists + 107 PPI + 35 PNF
- impossible to form a stable gov - Giolitti resigns
44
Q
PM List
A
- Nitti - June 9 1920
- Giolitti - 1921
- Ivanoe Bonomi -
- Luigi Facta -
45
Q
Dual Policy
A
- Mussolini hoped to become PM through constitutional channels
- had to balance the radical members + conservatives in the PNF
- July 1921 Mussolini called for an end to squadristi violence - didn’t want middle class to question use of fascist violence as socialist revolution was fading
46
Q
Pact of Pacification
A
- August 1921 - signed with the socialist trade union + PSI members in Parliament
- peace agreement
- Pact of Pacification was an attempt to assert his dominance over fascism
47
Q
Ras response
A
- until October 1921 fascism had been a movement not a Party
- the squads had more loyalty to their ras boss than to Mussolini
- squads were funded at a local level
- Dino Grandi + Italo Balbo + Roberto Farinacci - three powerful ras bosses - condemned the pact
- meetings of squadristi held throughout Italy + called for an end to the Pact
48
Q
Mussolini’s resignation
A
- threaten to resign as leader of the Fascists if the Ras didn’t follow his policy
- on August 18 1921 he resigned - political manoeuvre
- without Mussolini the fascists lacked unity + direction
- ras unable to work together to formulate policy
- Mussolini’s absence strengthened his position - showed his importance
- ras bosses approached d’Annunzio to lead fascists but he refused
49
Q
Dino Grandi
A
- Mussolini offered him a prominent role on a fascist journal
- consequently confirmed his support for Mussolini
- Mussolini understood what could be offered to secure loyalty
50
Q
PNF Conference 1921
A
- fascist delegates overwhelmingly voted to support Mussolini as leader
- confirmed the organisation as an official Party
- PNF programme confirmed that the squadristi were under the control of the party
- Mussolini forced to drop the Pact of Pacification - he encouraged upsurge in fascist violence
51
Q
The squads become formally organised
A
- end of 1921 the squads are grouped into cohorts under the command of consuls - organised under zone commanders
- spring 1922 onwards fascist violence expanded - Blackshirts attacked areas where Socialists controlled the local council
- town after town fell to the fascists - inadequate response from gov
- Italo Balbo - ras boss - lead squads through Rimini to Bertinoro - Italian east coast - destroyed houses + offices where socialists + communists held meetings
52
Q
Government response to rising squad violence
A
- Bonomi’s gov collapsed in February 1922 - replaced by Luigi Facta weak + complacent
- gov did nothing to stop squad violence
- kept some public services running with volunteers - to save Italy from communism
- squads launched new attacks in Genoa + Milan + Livorno + Ancona + Bari - murdered socialist leads + supporters
- by October 1922 the fascists become the de facto gov in many provinces
53
Q
Mussolini 1922
A
- PNF grew to around 320k members + nearly 500k workers joined fascist trade unions
- Mussolini still favoured dual policy
- if fascists accepted through gov coalition - Mussolini would pursue a moderate conservative policy + back monarchy + reduce tax + balance budget
- encouraged squads to attack Bolzano + Trent - held by conservative liberals - pressuring gov itself
54
Q
Liberal gov divided on how to respond
A
- Orlando + Nitti called for a coalition with the fascists - both hoped to become PM again
- Giolitti concerned with stopping rival rather than stopping fascism
- Giolitti refused to help Facta’s gov unless offered to be PM by the king
- Mussolini used chaos to promise Nitti + Salandra + Facta + Giolitti each that they could be PM in a fascist coalition gov
55
Q
Mussolini’s indecisiveness
A
- ras were pushing for a March on Rome
- Mussolini wanted to be PM constitutionally - would give him a stronger position
- unsure of army’s response - squads would be crushed by army if King commanded it
56
Q
24 - 28 October
A
- 24th - Mussolini made a public speech in Naples to squadristi that he would either be appointed PM or seize power
- Mussolini continued talks with liberal politicians about potential coalition gov
- 27th - squadristi occupied gov offices + telephone exchanges + Facta asked King to proclaim martial law + use army
- 28th - king initially agreed with Facta + at 9am changed his mind and refused to sign the decree
57
Q
Victor Emmanuel III
A
- weak + indecisive + lacked confidence in Facta to control the situation
- Salandra + supporters influence King to not sign - Facta’s resignation would allow Salandra to be PM
- may fear that the **army would support fascists **+ didn’t want bloodshed
- army chiefs promised king they would follow orders + couldn’t guarantee that soldiers would shoot fascists
- king’s cousin Duke of Aosta was a fascist supporter - Mussolini hinted the Duke could take over
58
Q
Mussolini becomes PM
A
- without king’s support - Facta resigns
- king first turned to Salandra - asked Mussolini to form coalition - Mussolini had enough power to directly ask to be PM instead
- without Mussolini’s support - Salandra declines king’s offer
- Salandra + Orlando + Giolitti tell king to appoint Mussolini instead of each other
- 29 October - Mussolini receives offer from King to be PM in a coalition gov
59
Q
March on Rome
A
- 30th October - Mussolini arrives in Rome and is sworn in as PM
- approx 50k fascists led by the quadrumvirs make their way to Rome
- 31st October - victory parade
- myth of the March on Rome - power taken through armed insurrection used in propaganda
- state - sponsored history books would later write about a civil war in which 3k fascists died
60
Q
Quadrumvirs
A
- the four main leaders of fascism that Mussolini tasked with organising the March on Rome
- Michele Bianchi + Emilio De Bono + Cesare Maria de Vecchi + Italo Balbo
- often photographed alongside Mussolini at the start
- De Vecchi + Balbo were made colonial administrators in Somalia + Libya - unable to interfere in politics
61
Q
November 1922 situation
A
- only 35 fascist deputies whereas 123 PSI deputies
- cabinet included 4 fascists + 4** liberals + 2 PPI + 1 ANI + 3 key independents ( General Diaz )
- appointed self Foreign Minister + Minister for the Interior
- appointed orthodox economist Alberto De’Stefani minister of finance - placated the conservative industrialists
62
Q
Gaining the trust of the Catholic Church
A
- increased clerical pay + reinstated crucifixes in schools + banned contraception
- PPI member Stefano Cavazzoni appointed minister of work and welfare - encouraged PPI to work with Mussolini
- by July 1923 Luigi Stuurzo had resigned
- Mussolini’s pro-Catholic policies encouraged the Vatican to support the PNF - Pope Pius XI
63
Q
ANI
A
- on 28th October 1922 Mussolini announced a compromised between ANI + PNF
- in February 1923 the ANI were officially absorbed into the fascist party
- showed PNF as the only party representing Italian nationalism
64
Q
PM Maiden Speech
A
- 16 November 1922
- warned that he had 300k men ready to take violent action against his non-supporters
- mixture of threats + promises
- asked deputies for emergency powers
65
Q
Request for emergency powers
A
- granted emergency powers for a year
- Senate approved by 196 to 16
- deputies gave Mussolini a massive vote of confidence three weeks after becoming PM
- supposedly in order to reform the administration and tax system
66
Q
Grand Council of Fascism
A
- December 1922 - rival organisation to the cabinet
- appointed key fascists like Italo Balbo + Michele Bianchi + Emilio De Bono
- discussed key policy + undermined liberal gov institutions by bypassing them
- centralised Mussolini’s powers as he solely chose the members of the council
67
Q
MVSN
A
- created in January 1923 - supported by king + army + elite
- absorbed all the squadristi + formalised the role as a party-based paramilitary group who supported the army + police in defending the fascist revolution
- the 300k members pledged allegiance to Italy + commander-in-chief Mussolini
- brought an end to fascist violence - viewed negatively since socialist revolution threat had disappeared
- 200 ras expelled from party
68
Q
Cheka
A
- secret personal bodyguard of fascist thugs
- purpose was to terrorise any opponents of Mussolini
- led by Ameriqo Dumini - one of Mussolini’s closest advisors
- since the March on Rome party numbers had increased to 783k - majority middle class
69
Q
Acerbo Law
A
- named after Giacomo Acerbo who drafted it
- proposed that 2/3 of parliamentary seats should go to the party that won the most votes ( at least 25% of total )
- the remaining 1/3 would be distributed proportionately to the other parties
- Mussolini claimed that it would bring stability to Italy and create a strong government
70
Q
Passing of the Acerbo Law
A
- opposed by PCI + PSI
- supported by king + Giolitti + liberal elites
- Vatican supported the law which pressured PPI to abstain
- fascists demonstrated in Tuscany + Umbria - threatened violence
71
Q
New Elections 6 April 1924
A
- Orlando + Salandra were on the fascist list
- opposition forces divided between the PCI + PPI + PSI - unable to create a united opposition
- electoral turnout of 64%
- The Fascists and their allies secured 66% of the vote
- Fascist deputies increased from 35 to 374, giving them a clear majority (535 seats in total)
- Of the remaining deputies 39 PPI + 46 Socialists (split between two rival parties – PSI and Reform Liberals) + 19 were Communists.
72
Q
Blackshirt violence during election
A
- destroyed hundreds of opposition clubs + offices
- murdered PSI candidate Antonio Piccinini
- Mussolini tried suppressing the violence
- opposition still managed to attract 2.5 million votes
73
Q
Early 1923 support grows
A
- convinced industrialists to support fascism - didn’t attack tax evasion
- persuaded Confindustria - a powerful organisation that repped big business
- launched an attack on freemasonry + baptised his grown children + had a church wedding - to appease the Church
74
Q
Matteotti speech
A
- 30 May 1924 - PCI leader Giacomo Matteotti speech in parliament
- denounced use of violence + corruption during electoral campaign
- asserted the fascists only won through violence
- rumours that Matteotti had a large file on fascist party corruption
75
Q
Matteotti murder
A
- kidnapped on 10 June 1924 walking to parliament
- his body found on 16 August in a shallow grave outside Rome
- the car he had been taken in belonged to Mussolini’s press secretary Cesare Rossi
- leader of the kidnapping was Ameriqo Dumini who was arrested on 12 June - head of the Cheka - only served 11 months in jail - received approx 2.37 million in payments from the PNF until 1943
76
Q
Pressure on Mussolini
A
- elite concerned with PM connection to murder
- PSI + PCI calling for the dismissal of Mussolini
- pressure from ras who saw Matteotti crisis as opportunity to establish dictatorship
77
Q
Aventine Secession
A
- on 13 June around 100 antifascist deputies walked out of parliament
- established own parliament on the Aventine Hill outside Rome
- hoped to prompt king to dismiss Mussolini
78
Q
Mussolini’s response to the Matteotti Crisis
A
- Mussolini gave position of Minister of Interior to nationalist Luigi Federzoni + Alfredo Rocco the Justice Minister - to reassure elites
- Federzoni was well respected by the elite
- in November 1924 Mussolini ordered PNF to cease violence - pressured by army
- sent financial assistance to Matteotti’s wife + kids
79
Q
December 31st 1924
A
- Mussolini met with a delegation of squad leaders
- they demanded he act to defend the fascist revolution or they would remove him as the PNF leader
- only two days after Salandra declared his opposition to Mussolini
80
Q
January 1925
A
- on 3 January 1925 Mussolini made a parliamentary speech where he announced the establishment of the fascist dictatorship
- on 12 January Mussolini formed a new cabinet - without most liberals
- made self PM + minster of Foreign Affairs + War + Navy + Aviation
81
Q
Farinacci
A
- in February Farinacci was appointed as the PNF secretary
- tasked with purging party of those who disagreed with Mussolini’s political direction
- helped increased party membership from 600k to 938k
- diluted the power of squadristi
- recruited those who saw membership + loyalty as a career advantage rather than violence + fascism
82
Q
October 1925
A
- Grand Council of Fascism approved a motion that forced all ras to disband any squads + enlist in the militia
- Mussolini gained military support by increasing officer + generals pay
- appointed conservative monarchist Pietro Badoglia as chief of general staff - opposed to a fascist
83
Q
Palazzo Vidoni Pact
A
- 2 October 1925
- established the official fascist unions as the only representatives of Italy’s workers
- took power from socialist + Catholic unions
- fascists unions were more subservient to the industrialists
84
Q
PSU
A
- on 4 August 1925 the socialist deputy Tito Zaniboni arrested for allegedly plotting to assassinate Mussolini
- Mussolini immediately banned Zaniboni’s Party
- Partito Socialisto Unitari
85
Q
1925 new laws
A
- press law - all journalism had to be supervised + approved by the state
- gov given the power to sack any public employee whose actions were hostile to the PNF
- December 1925 title of PM of Italy changed to Head of Government and Duce of Fascism
86
Q
1926 new laws
A
- Jan 1926 - Duce granted ability to rule by decree = removed ability of parliament to remove PM through vote of no confidence
- 31 October 1926 all parties apart from PNF banned - after Anteo Zamboni assassination attempt
- a Special Tribunal for the Defence of State set up to prosecute antifascists - no right of appeal
87
Q
Aventine Deputies + Opposition
A
- Aventine Deputies were permanently excluded from parliament
- communist leader Antonio Gramsci arrested
- most opposition leaders had fled in exile to France + elsewhere
- Italian citizenship + property confiscated of opposition leaders under new fascist law
- approx 10k antifascists left Italy
88
Q
Podestà
A
- Mussolini abolished elected locals govs + replaced mayors with a new position called Podestà - appointed by local prefects
- prefects appointed by Mussolini - more powerful than ras
89
Q
Augusto Turati
A
- new PNF secretary Augusto Turati replaced Farinacci in March 1926
- asserted that prefects took precedent over ras
- Turati believed that fascists needed to understand that Mussolini was dictator of party and Italy
- Mussolini took 18 months since Matteotti’s murder to establish proper dictatorship - Il Duce - the leader
90
Q
Attempted assassinations of Mussolini
A
- 4 August 1925 - Tito Zaniboni failed attempt to shoot Mussolini from a hotel room overlooking the balcony where Mussolini would give a speech
- 7 April 1926 - mentally unstable Anglo-Irish aristocrat Violet Gibson claimed she had been ordered to shoot the Pope or Mussolini - shot Mussolini at a speech in Rome - bullet grazed his nose
- 11 September 1926 - Gino Lucetti 26yrs old threw a grenade at Mussolini’s car and injured 8 pedestrians
- 31 October 1926 - Mussolini’s motorcade was shot at - alleged assassin was 16yrs old Anteo Zamboni - attacked by the crowd + murdered
- used feeling of fear created by assassinations to justify laws introduced
