Challenges To, And The Fall Of, The Fascist State 1935-46 Flashcards
1
Q
Foreign policy aims
A
- consolidate Italian rule in Libya + expand imperialism in Africa
- expand into the Med - currently controlled by Britain thus making Italy a prisoner of the sea
- transform Italy into a more militaristic society + become a Great Power + obtain spazio vitale - living space
2
Q
1922 foreign affairs
A
- travels to Switzerland + London to negotiate reparations issues
3
Q
Corfu incident
A
- August 1923 - Italian General Enrico Tellini murdered during inter-allied commission about border between Greece + Albania
- Mussolini accused Greek gov of financing + organising assassination
- ## demanded attendance of Greek gov at funeral in Athens + pay penalty of 50 million lire
4
Q
Italy bombs Corfu
A
- 31 August 1923 - bombs + occupies Corfu without warning
- celebrated by Italian nationalists + many elite + head of navy - Thaon di Revel
- League of Nations demanded end of occupation + deal with issue through international arbitration
- Italy’s Navy would barely last 48 hours if Britain acted
- 27 Sept 1923 - Italy left Corfu + got 50 million lire from Greece
5
Q
Consequences of Corfu Incident
A
- confrontation with Greece led to opposition from Lof N + accept that Italy was weaker than Great Powers
- domestic success = decisive ruler - contrast with weak liberal gov
6
Q
Fiume
A
- Jan 1924 - Yugoslavia recognised Fiume as part of Italy
- increased domestic popularity - historical significance of Fiume = symbolic
- Yugoslavia no longer needed Fiume as they created a greater port at Split
- in return = Italian recognition of Yugoslavian rule st Susak
7
Q
1925 Locarno Treaty Involvement
A
- Germany accepted the pre-war borders with Belgium + France
- ## Il Duce failed to link Locarno to Italian negotiations BUT his presence = accepted as equal to Great Powers
8
Q
Albania - Zogu
A
- Mussolini backed Ahmet Zogu’s accession to President 1925 + Zogu’s self-proclamation as King Zog I 1928
- support + bribery of Zogu = Albania became informal Italian protectorate - extended Italian influence
9
Q
Undermining Yugoslavia
A
- Yugoslavia was a barrier to Italy’s territorial ambitions
- M provided support to Croation Utasha + Macedonian nationalist movements that wanted to separate from the Yugoslav State
- 1934 - Croatian terrorists - financed + trained in Italy - assassinated Yugoslavian king Alexander
10
Q
Pacification of Libya 1929 - 32
A
- slow progress of Italian armies = kept out of media
- hired mercenaries from other African countries to control Libyan forces
- 1929 Marshal Badoglia took control of Italian forces
- began harsh starvation + mass execution + chemical warfare + concentration camps
- over 40k died in the concentration camps + 100k homes destroyed
11
Q
Relation with Britain
A
- 1915 Treaty of London + worked together in 1925 Locarno Pact negotiations
- Britain helped Italy with Albania as Italy pressured Turkey to give up Mosul to British colony of Iraq
- issues with control of Med + Corfu Incident + M gave support to pro-Italian groups in Malta
- 1927 revaluation of lira funded by British gov + world financial system controlled by West
12
Q
Relation with France
A
- majority of antifascist exiles settled in France + OVRA agents in France = suspicious of each other
- rival to Italian aims in Med + Africa
- french worried about Tunisia - French colony with large Italian population
- Italy prepared to work with France - Locarno Treaty
13
Q
Relation with Germany
A
- Mussolini supported nationalist groups who wanted to overthrow the Weimar Republic
- fear of Anschluss
- Hitler’s Beer Hall Putsch inspired by Mussolini’s March on Rome
- Hitler + Mussolini exchanged letters in the 1930s - respected + supported each other
14
Q
Four Power Pact
A
- attempt to appease + control Germany + undermine League of Nations
- proposal to Hitler of parity of arms with Italy + possibility of territorial changes to T of V
- France + Britain + Germany + Italy
- signed on 15 July 1933 BUT not ratified by France + Britain - Czechoslovakia + Poland protested against it - fear of German expansion
- Hitler’s withdrawal from L of N + rearmament 1933 undermined the Four Power Pact
15
Q
Englebert Dolfuss
A
- July 1934 - Austrian Nazis assassinated Austrian Chancellor Dolfuss
- attempt to pursue Anschluss - not backed by Hitler - attempt to build relations with Mussolini
- Mussolini mobilised 4 divisions + moved equipment between Austria and Italy to the Brenner Frontier - refused Anschluss
16
Q
The Wal-Wal Incident 1934
A
-Abyssinians fired on Italians 80 miles within the border - Mussolini demanded an apology
- issue referred to the LofN but Italy prepared for war with Abyssinia
17
Q
The Stresa Front 1935
A
- background: Hitler announces rearmament in defiance of Versailles - Mussolini’s resources already dedicated to Africa
- joint resolution for peace + commitment to League of Nations - help with Germany in return for no action with Abyssinia
- Britain didn’t block the Suez Canal - British coal industry struggling - needed trade with Italy
- Laval would argue they had only agreed to Italy’s economic penetration of Abyssinia
18
Q
Why invade Abyssinia?
A
- last African country free of colonial rule - add to Cult of Il Duce
- planning for war helped economy - war-related contracts created jobs
- autarky - Abyssinia would provide raw materials + area for agricultural expansion + create export market
- southern Italian peasants would move and farm - ease pressure for land reform
- part of the greater radicalisation of policy to make Italy a more militaristic society - demonstration of aggressive fascist policy
- restore pride from defeat at battle of Adwa 1896 + dissuade Anschluss
19
Q
Hoare-Laval Pact
A
- December 1935 - British foreign minister Samuel Hoare + French foreign minister Pierre Laval
- secretly offered Italy 2/3 of Abyssinia in return for continuation of the Stresa Front
- offer was leaked = Hoare forced to resign - replaced by Eden who was hostile to Italy
- public outrage
20
Q
Invasion of Abyssinia
A
- October 1935 - Mussolini launched force of 400k men - seized Adwa + border towns quickly BUT progress slowed
- Nov 1935 - head of army De Bono replaced with Marshal Badoglia who led Libyan invasion
- mass aerial bombings +illegal chemical warfare + murder of prisoners of war
- 5 May 1936 - army entered capital of Abyssinia - Addis Ababa - 20 million Italians listened to 9 May Mussolini radio broadcast about victory of Abyssinia
21
Q
Positive consequences of invasion of Abyssinia
A
- LofN’s limited sanctions used as Italian propaganda = Mussolini was defying attempts to limit Italian power = great leader
- established Italy as a great power
- Church approved invasion as a civilising mission - even thought Abyssinians were Christian
- confirmed Mussolini’s belief that aggressive actions enhances his power - domestically + internationally
22
Q
Gold for the Patria
A
- December 1935 - Gold for the Patria campaign launched by Royal Family
- Queen Elena gave her wedding ring to melt into metal to help against sanctions
- thousands of women gave their rings - given steel rings to signify marriage to the nation
- idea of being wedded to nation = key concept of fascism
23
Q
Negative consequences of invasion of Abyssinia
A
- only approx 130k Italians settled in Abyssinia
- the colony didn’t provide much oil + raw materials for AUTARKY
- export markets never materialised - ONLY 2% of Italian trade went to Abyssinia
- illegal use of chemical warfare - changed perception of Mussolini as dangerous to European peace
- exposed weakness of LofN - encouraged Hitler’s ambitions
24
Q
Economic consequences of invasion of Abyssinia
A
- 2/3 of country not conquered - high costs to supply 250k troops
- lira devalued 40%
- budget deficit rose 2.5 Billion to 16 Billion
- problems from sanctions caused Italy to rely heavily on Germany
25
Q
Supposed weakness of France + Britain
A
- weak sanctions for Abyssinian invasion
- lack of punishment in March 1936 - Hitler moved troops into demilitarised Rhineland - defying Treaty of Versailles
26
Q
Reasons for intervention in the Spanish Civil War
A
- Hitler had committed forced to helping General Franco - leading right-wing forces against republican gov - backed by France + USSR
- move towards Germany = Britain would make concessions on Africa + Med for Italy - to stop Germany gaining power
- if Franco successful - Italy would gain strategic ally in the Med + gain naval bases in Balearic Islands
- help fuel the spread of authoritarian nationalist regimes = weaken communism + socialism
- Abyssinian war showed domestic benefits of war + increase cult of Il Duce
27
Q
Intervention figure
A
- 50k soldiers sent
- thousands of artillery and tanks
- 1.4K pilots
- 400 fighter planes
- 200 bombers
- 3k Italian soldiers dead + 11k wounded
28
Q
Economic consequences of Spanish Civil War
A
- cost approx 14 Billion lire - gov had to implement special taxes
- lira devalued further
- Italy’s foreign currency reserves halved
- caused further economic dependence on Germany
29
Q
Negative consequences of Spanish Civil War
A
- Spain didn’t concede naval bases to Italy
- military focus on Spain weakened Italian forces in Abyssinia + Italian army weaken in 1939 than in 1936
- not popular with Italian public - didn’t understand reason for intervention + concern about Italy’s move towards Nazi Germany
- problems with military visible when Italian force defeated by republican ray of antifascist Italian volunteers in the Battle of Guadalajara March 1937
30
Q
Italy - Britain relation post Spanish Civil War
A
- failed Hoare-Laval Pact + Italy’s intervention in Spanish Civil War undermined France
- during war - Italian submarines pretending to be Spanish sunk neutral ships in Med - angered British gov
- 1938 summer - Italian bombing sunk 11 British ships in Spanish ports
- Jan 1937 - Gentleman’s Agreement with Britain - confirmed status quo in med + limited Italian intervention - Mussolini ignored the agreement
31
Q
Rome-Berlin Axis
A
- October 1936
- Germany would have freedom of action in Eastern Europe + Baltic + support Italy with attempt to gain power in the Med
- followed by German-Italian Axis agreement in Nov 1936
32
Q
Closer relationship with Germany
A
- Italian exports became more reliant on German markets
- Sept 1937 - Mussolini gives speech in Berlin - proclaimed Italian + German values were same - 800k Germans came to see
- Mussolini impressed by German militant society
33
Q
Anti-Comintern Pact + Italy leaves League of Nations
A
- Nov 1937 - Italy + Germany + Japan - established mutual support in case of aggression from the Soviet Union - also secretly aimed at Britain
- Dec 1937 - Mussolini withdrew Italy from LofN - claimed it was against the Italian revolution
- confirmed Italy as a revisionist power - wanted to rewrite Treaty of Versailles
- confirmed end of Stresa Front
34
Q
Anschluss
A
- March 1938 - Hitler crosses Austrian border with troops
- Italy begins to lose independence - doesn’t stop Germany - becoming German satellite state
- April 1938 - Austrian plebiscite was 99% in favour of Anschluss
35
Q
Munich Conference
A
- September 1938 - initially arranged to solve Hitler’s demand for Czechoslovakia
- Mussolini played role of mediator - secretly colluded with Hitler to help Germany
- Britain willing to compromise to stop war
- Germany is given Sudetenland - area of Czechoslovakia with large German-speaking population
36
Q
Domestic tensions
A
- between 1935 - 39 - military spending accounted for 80% of increase in budget deficit
- increased taxes for Spanish civil war intervention = unpopular
- quest for autarky = consumer products more expensive + Battle for Grain worsened diet
- living standards for workers in decline
- Italian economy highly dependent on Germany - Feb 1939 - commercial treaty signed
37
Q
Transfer of Italian workers to Germany
A
- highly unpopular policy - 500k workers transferred by 1945
- Italian workers treated poorly by Germans - condescending attitude to immigrants
- the policy contradicted Mussolini’s speeches about ensuring dignity of workers
- confirmed subservience to Germany
38
Q
Invasion of Albania
A
- April 1939 - foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano proposed Albania as compensation for allowing Anschluss
- King Zog had been encouraging investment from other countries - attempt to become less dependent on Italy
- invasion showed weakness of Italian army - unorganised troops + poor coordination between forces
39
Q
Pact of Steel
A
- May 1939 - acceptance of full alliance with Germany - pact drafted by Germans
- military + economic cooperation + permanent political consultation between Nazis and Fascists
- Article 3 - committed Italy to support Germany if it went to war - against diplomatic convention of defensive alliances - ALSO Italy not ready for war
- German foreign minister Ribbentrop initially promised that Germany had no intention of war before 1943 BUT on 11 August told Ciano that Germany planning to attack Poland - BETRAYAL AND LIESSSS
40
Q
Nazi-Soviet Pact
A
- 23 August 1939 - after Pact of Steel
- non-agression Pact between Russia + Germany
- secret protocols - division of East Germany into Nazi + Soviet spheres of influence
- went against Anti-Comintern Pact
41
Q
Italian neutrality
A
- foreign minister Ciano + King urged against intervention
- BUT fascism had been linked with war + agression = going back on his word - same as lib gov in 1914
- Mussolini gave Hitler list of 170 million goods to join war = hitler released Italy from Pact of Steel
42
Q
Italy enters war
A
- Mussolini didn’t want Italy to be non-belligerent
- Mussolini thought only a few thousand soldiers would die
- announced to public on 10 June 1940 that Italy joined WWII
43
Q
Parallel concept
A
- Italy would focus on Med + Northern Africa whilst Hitler focused mostly on Europe
44
Q
French armistice
A
- france ask for armistice w/ Germany before Italian troops attack
- Italy wanted to ask for territories from France - Nice + Tunisia + Sudan + Somalia - Hitler didn’t want to push France to the Allies
- Italian troops advance into French Alps - reveals army’s problems = clothing + weapons
- captured 13 unimportant villages + lost 631 men
- armistice signed on 22 June 1940
45
Q
Military losses
A
- Mussolini had ordered partial demobilisation of troops in july 1940 - thought war was almost over + waiting for German invasion of Britain
- 19th century tactics against modern British warfare - British counter attack in December 1940 where 250k Italians lost to 30k Britons in Egypt
- By 1941 May Italy had lost Eritrea + Somaliland + Abyssinia + 380k troops surrendered and prisoner = contrast with Italian propaganda promise to transform italy into militant nation
- British advance into Libya stopped by German General Rommel = signalled end of parallel war
- May 1943 German-Italian axis surrendered in North Africa + lost Libya
46
Q
Losses in the Med
A
- no consistent strategy for attack in Med
- November 1940 Italian navy crippled by British air attack
- poor coordination between airforce + navy + lacked aircraft carriers
47
Q
Disaster in Greece
A
- launched attack on 28 October 1940 - attempt to increase influence in Balkans
- underestimated Greek army size - thought 30k vs actual 300k
- lack of armed forces coordination + poor weather + bad uniform + lack of weapons
- 32k soldiers dead + 100k wounded
- forced to ask for German help - who defeated Greeks within weeks
- fascism seen as weaker than Greece - not even a powerful European country
48
Q
Mussolini’s poor leadership
A
• Mussolini was Minster of War + Navy + Airforce + Supreme Commander of armed forces
• Head of 5 ministries = concentration of power hampered military effectiveness
• Mussolini made all big decisions WITHOUT consulting others
• Gov shut down when he left Rome - can’t make any decisions
• May 1940 - focused on opera season rather than on war
• Unable to coordinate armed forces + gave vague instructions to military leaders
• Spent time with mistress Claretta instead of Chief of General Staff Ugo Cavellaro
49
Q
Poor state of military
A
- Italy had 75 division but only enough equipment for 35 divisions + lacked tanks + vehicles
- 1/3 of tanks destroyed by British in the Med
- many rifles + cannons from WWI + few aircraft carriers + no radar on naval ships
- no long-range bombers + outdated airforce vs British spitfires
- low rations + low morale + 19th century tactics outdated
- language barrier in armed forces between officers vs peasant conscripts
50
Q
Economic problems
A
- USA makes more planes in a week than Italy in a year
- Germany only sent 1 million tonnes coal monthly + lack of raw materials - oil + rubber + iron
- steel production at 1.7 million tonnes vs British 14 million tonnes
- Italian economy at 25% of potential + only country in war with no GDP increase
- thousands of unemployed workers vs most countires at 100% employment
-food rationing at 1k calories daily for adult - allied bombions of industrial cities = decreased industrial production
51
Q
Striking
A
- 1943 March 100k workers striking in Turin + spread to Milan and further
- communist workers helped arrange strikes = demand for better pay for people forced to evacuate
- strikes end when gov increase money for evacuees
- industrial action shows political weakness of fascist regime - first strikes since 1920s
52
Q
Antifascist groups resurface
A
- communist newspaper l’Unita reappeared in 1942
- Part of Action group formed - republicans radicals + left-leaning liberals
- 1942 - antifascist group Christian Democrats - made of Catholic Action members backed by Church
- secret police made over *1.4K political arrests** between march and June in 1943
- April 1943 - all groups apart from republicans agreed to work against fascism
53
Q
Conservative elite
A
- 1943 onwards
- Vatican + military leaders + industrialists + police considering deposing Mussolini + removing Italy from war
- Mussolini is a weakened figure + ill + stressed + lacked plans
- loss of support of conservative elite
54
Q
Allied invasion of Sicily
A
- 9 July 1943 Allies land in Sicily - conquered western half of Sicily in a week
- Germany refused Mussolini’s request for help
- allied planes bombed Rome - 1.5k dead
- Mussolini asked generals if there were any plans to defend Sicily - HE IS THE LEADER IDIOT
- Italian retreat to mainland
55
Q
US peace deal
A
- Dino Grandi + Ciano begin negotiations with Allies for peace
- Grandi planned for monarchy to take constitutional + military powers + replace Mussolini
- USA would agree to armistice if King dismissed Mussolini
56
Q
Grand Council meeting 24 JULY 1943
A
- Grand Council hadn’t met since September 1939 - Allied invasion of Sicily caused fascists to act
- Grandi had canvassed support for his vote to depose Mussolini
- nine hours of discussion - Grandi’s resolution passed with 19 votes to 7 votes
- Mussolini met with king next day - king informed him he was dismissed + replaced by Marshal Badoglia
57
Q
Allied invasion of Italy
A
- Churchill thought obtaining Italy = able to open second front in the Balkans + Aegean + attack German forces
- Italian surrender signed 3 September 1943 - promise to hand over navy + airforce + 60k troops
- Italian soldiers across Europe confused - 1 million surrendered + continued on German side
- 9 Sept German invasion of Italy - King + Badoglia + officers fled to Allies in South - refused to tell army to fight Germans = fear of violence against civilians = German takeover of Rome
58
Q
Allies fight Germans in Italy
A
- Allied advance hampered by weather + geography - Apennine mountains = most fighting in mountains
- German army destroyed bridges + mountain passes in their retreat
- allied troops sent to France = depleted army
- 4 June 1955 capture of Rome but entire Italy on 2 May 1945
- allied fighting in north was parallel to a brutal civil war between antifascists + fascist Italians
59
Q
Setting up of Republic of Salo
A
- August 1943 - Mussolini in prison on Gran Sasso mountain - rescued by German aerial raid on 12 Sept + taken to Germany
- Hitler ultimatum - Mussolini lead as head of fascist gov OR Germany destroy Italy
- 25 Sept - Mussolini set up capital in Gargano near Lake Garda - controlled by Germans who spread gov orgs over 100 miles to reduce effectiveness
- Foreign Ministry + Ministry of popular Culture set up in Salo
- RSI known as Salo Republic
60
Q
German control of RSI
A
- Germans appointed officials without consulting Mussolini
- deal that RSI pay Germany 7 B lire monthly
- October 1943 Razzia of Rome’s Jews - 8k Jews rounded up + sent to death camps
- Mussolini did set up his own cabinet + Salo controlled most rich areas of Italy - Liguria + Lombardy
61
Q
The Verona Manifesto
A
- 14 November 1943 - first congress of new fascist party
- anticlerical republic + nationalised industry + classed jews as enemy
- none of Mussolini’s policies (except jews) were carried out) - lack of support from Germans
——————————- - January 1944 - 5 fascist - including Ciano - sentenced to death for treason
- Fascist in RSI helped German plan to send Italian Jews to death camps - 7k executed
62
Q
RSI army vs partisans
A
- new militia formed National Republican Guard GNR - had 200k men by 1944
-navy 20k + airforce 28k + others = approx 573k - more than the antifascistes - RSI mainly in fight against partisans - civilians can’t shelter partisans
- German policy - for each German soldier dead = 10 Italians executed
- March 1944 partisans kill 33 German soldiers = 335 Italians executed
- 10% of all civilian deaths in north were executions
63
Q
Italian antifascist partisans
A
- ex soldiers + students + civilians against German occupation + Salo Republic
- by June 1944 approx 82k partisans
- sabotage + political assassinations + destruction of transport routes
- PCI were 60% of the partisans + Party of Action + Christian Democrats
- overall killed 5k German soldiers + disrupted 30k
64
Q
Kingdom of the South
A
- under control of the Allied occupation
- local leadership didn’t change much - conservatives stayed as prefects + podestas
- conservative elites were monarchists - helped control social unrest
- Allies encouraged king to include antifascist parties in gov - Badoglia replaced by antifascst lib Ivanoe Bonomi
- attempt for conscription met with resistance by public - only 50k men fought alongside Allies
65
Q
Mussolini’s capture
A
- 18 April 1945 - Mussolini left Gargano and set up capital in Milan
- Germans were negotiating surrender without informing Mussolini
- 27 April - partisans stop disguised Mussolini’s convoy in Dongo - they arrest Mussolini + mistress Claretta
- executed near lake Como - bodies put on display at piazzale Loretto - crowds attacked his body
66
Q
Surrender of Italy
A
- 29 April - Germans sign surrender documents - ceasefire agreed for May 1
- 2 May - war in Italy came to an end
- Hitler is also dead
67
Q
State of Italy post war
A
- in a worse states than 1918
- economy + infrastructure wrecked by war
- many Italians lacked food + clean water - 500k Italians dead - including civilians
- after Germany’s surrender - partisan revenge killings killed 30k Fascist supporters
68
Q
Replacement of Fascist dictatorship
A
- communists + socialists + Christian Democrats set up new foundation of state - on the values of the resistance
- RSI supporters + anti partisan supporters felt excluded
- fighting had been mostly in the north - new state ignored experience of the South
69
Q
Italy republic vote
A
- 2 June 1946 - Italians voted for Constituent Assembly to draw up new constitution + whether italy should be republic
- king’s support for Mussolini since 1922 + inadequate action after removal of Mussolini = unpopular
- 12.7million vs 10.7million = establishment of republic
- vote divided geographically with north voting republic + south voting retain monarchy
70
Q
New constitution vote
A
- included female voters for the first time
- Christian Democrats won 207 out of 556 seats + PCI 104 + PSI 114
- established liberal democracy + civil and political freedom guaranteed + monarchy replaced with president
- rule of law under independent judiciary system enshrined in constitution
- **lateran pacts* included
71
Q
Post war politics
A
- 1947 Christian Democrats set up new gov excluding PCI - breaking antifascist front since 1944
- even by 1960 most prefects + police chiefs + deputies were same peole who had worked for the previous fascist gov
- 1 September 1957 - crowds saw Mussolini laid to rest in family tomb in Predappio
