The Retrieval Process Flashcards
retrieval on memory
- many failiures of memory are failures of retrieval
- tip of tongue state
- tip of finger state reported in sign language users
retrieval process
- a progression from one or more retrieval cues to a target memory trace through associative connections
- the aim is to make the target available
target memory trace: the particular memory we are searching for
retrieval cues: bits of information about the target memory that guide the search
associations:
- bonds that link together items in memory
- vary in strength
spreading activation
activation level:
- the internal state of a memory, reflecting its level of excitement
- determines accessibility of the item
- increases when something related to the memory is encountered
persists for some time
spreading activation:
- the automatic transmission of “energy” from one memory to related items via associations
- proportional to the strength of connections
pattern completion (spreading activation)
pattern completion = the process by which spreading activation from a set of cues leads to the reinstatement of a memory
- hippocampal mechanism
retrieval = reinstatement (via spreading activation) of features that represent a memory
features will spread activation to other features
Name all the factors determining retrieval success
- attention to cues
- relevance of cues
- cue-target associative strength
- number of cues
- Strength of target memory
- Retrieval strategy
- Retrieval mode
explain the “attention to cues” retrieval determinant
reduced attention to a cue impairs its ability to guide retrieval
explain the “relevance of cues” retrieval determinant
retrieval cues are most effective when they are strongly related to the target
explain the “cue target associative strength” retrieval determinant
retrieval success depends on the strength of cue target association
explain the “number of cues” retrieval determinant
access to additional, relevant cues facilitates retrieval (such as elaborative encoding)
explain the “strength of target memory” retrieval determinant
weakly encoded targets are more difficult to retrieve
explain the “retrieval strategy” retrieval determinant
success is increased by:
- the organisation of materials at encoding
- adopting efficient strategies of memory search
explain the “retrieval mode” retrieval determinant
frame of mind allows interpreting environmental stimuli as episodic cues to guide subsequent retrieval
direct/explicit memory tests
- ask people to recall particular experiences
- require a contextual cue
- reveal impaited performance in amnesiacs
- in many cases rely on hippocampus
free recall - recall studied items
cued recall - what word was presented with x
yes/no recognition - did you study x
forced choice recognition - did you study x or y
indirect/implicit memory tests
- measure the unconscious influence of experience without asking the subject to recall the past
- priming: recent experience with the stimulus improves performance
- reveal normal performance in amnesiacs
stem completion - fill in letters MO__
fragment completion - fill in letters A_P_E
conceptual fluency - “name as many birds”
contextual cues
spatio-temporal/environmental: location and time cues during an event
mood: emotional state that one was in during the event
physiological: physical state one was in during event
cognitive: collection of concepts one has thought about the event
WE ENCODE INFO ALONG WITH CONTEXT - CONTEXT FACILITATES RETRIEVAL
context dependent memory : environmental factors study
Gooden and Baddeley (1975)
task:
- taught divers word pairs in one of two contexts: dry land or underwater
- tested cued recall in same or different environment
results:
- material is recalled best in the environment it was learned
context dependent memory : environmental factors study
Grant et al. 1998
Investigated study in both noisy and quiet environments, and then tesing in noisy and quiet environments
- all combinations studied
results:
- participants did better when the testing condition matched the study condition
state-dependent memory
- like context dependent but relating to internal state/environment
- recall depends on the match between the participants’ internal environment at encoding and retrieval
match even true when:
- drunk
- under influence of marijuana or caffeine
- exercising or rest
state dependency dissapears under recognition tests
mood-dependent memory
about the person/person match
recall is dependent on the match in mood states between encoding and retrieval
mood-congruent memory
about the person/item match
it is easier to recall events that have an emotional tone that matches the current mood of the person
depressed individuals are likely to recall mostly unpleasant memories
mood dependent memory: Eich, Macaulay, and Ryan (1994)
task:
- encoding: pleasant or unpleasant mood
- test: 2 days later, same or opposite mood prior to recall
results:
- free recall was vastly improved when mood states matched
cognitive context dependent memory
retrieval is better if hte same cognitive features/tasks are involved
ideas, thoughts and concepts that occupied our attention
memory facilitated when cognitive context at encoding matches retrieval
cognitive context dependent memory: Marian and Neisser (2000)
Marian and Neisser’s bilingual study
task:
- memory cues/interviews were provided in either russian or English
- participants asked to recall life events from any period
results:
- memories are easier to access when retrieval takes place in the same language mode as they were encoded
Signal detection theory
Signal detection theory
decide whether one encountered a stimulus (recognition decision)
- tone presented against background noise
matrix of results
SDT and dual-process theory
- SDT cannot account for all recognition memory phenomena
- word frequency effect: low frequency words are better recognised (although high frequency words are better recalled)
- SDT incorrectly predicts low frequency words should be less familiar
Dual Process theory - Yonelinas, 2002
Recognition memory is based on 2 types of memory or processes (Mandler, 1980):
familiarity:
- a sense of memory without being able to remember contextual information
- described by signal detection
- faster and more automatic
recollection:
- retrieving contextual details about a stimulus - like cued recall
- slower and more attention demanding
- can be disrupted by divided attention (at encoding and recognition), advanced age, and damage to prefrontal cortex
measuring recognition memory
Remember/Know Procedure (Tulving, 1985)
Remember the item being presented previously:
- recollect contextual details
- measure of recollection
know it was presented previously
- seems familiar
- measure of familiarity
Recognition memory in the brain
Aggleton and Brown (1999) Model
Hippocampus
- recall/recollection
Surrounding cortical regions (perirhinal/entorhinal cortex)
- recognition memory; familiarity
Structures within medial temporal lobe thought to support recognition memory
