🇿🇦the response to apartheid 1948-59 Flashcards

Question

what year did Hertzog and Smuts join together in a United Party

Answer 1

-Malan split from Hertzog and re found the NP causing a political division amongst Afrikaners -1920s and 1930s saw an increase in Afrikaner pride -in 1938 the centenary of the Great Trek was commemorated by a re-enactment showing the celebration of Afrikaner freedom ->in the 1830s 1/4 of Afrikaners left the British control in Cape Colony to establish independent republics in the Transvaal and Orange Free state -Afrikaans bibles, newspapers, books -Afrikaner press led to nationalism -Created new communities in the towns in largely Afrikaans speaking suburbs

Answer 2

politicians could appeal to the Afrikaner rising sense of themselves

Answer 3

-1948 SA was a self governing part of the British empire -A Governor General was the representative of the British monarch -a parliament imitated the British system -British investors dominated industries and mines -English was the join official language -British sports were popular -Strong cultural and political links -by 1948 these ties provoked strong reactions among Afrikaners attracted to the possibility of a Republican government

Answer 4

1) Afrikaner nationalism 2) NP's campaign and voting system 3) impact of WW2 4) White workers wanting protection from competition for jobs

Answer 5

-Afrikaner votes split between United Party (Hertzog and Smuts) and the National Party (Malan) in 1938 -In 1939 parliament voted to support British war effort -Hertzog resigned leaving Smuts in control of the UP -The NP mobilised Afrikaners for their vision for the future of SA and an idea on how they could survive in a culturally mixed society

Answer 6

-more extreme ideas about racial destiny/supremacy -opposed British war effort- launched a mass anti war movement of 300,000 the Ossewabrandwag -more rural population which are Afrikaner nationalists -NP were not necessarily campaigning for Afrikaner nationalism but benefitted from it as they had similar ideology -Broederbond was a society of selected Afrikaner men with Christian/Nationalist/Republican ideology -After 1939 the idea of Afrikaners becoming a distinct separate identity from other South Africans gained political currency -by 1948 the Afrikaner influence within society was sufficient to provide a formidable base upon which to contest the election

Answer 7

had nationalist ideology -Calvinist Dutch Reform Church believed Black and white people played separate roles in God's plan -boundaries between races had to be strengthened to prevent racial impurity and inter-marrying -NP appealed to this idea because they ensured the total regulation of African movement and employment

Answer 8

* Prior to WW2 legal discrimination/segregation by race was uncommon in countries including the British colonies * In the US southern states had ‘Jim Crow’ (disparaging term for black people) laws which restricted registration for the franchise and segregated schools/public facilities * SA’s early segregationist legislation was harsh but not different from elsewhere * Following WW2, the war against fascism and the holocaust, major powers increasingly raised concerns about basic human rights * From 1947 the colonial empires were dismantled when India became independent which affected SA’s policies * In the US segregation still had supporters in the southern states in the 1940 and 1950s * White South Africans stood for western, Christian and anti-communist values and found international sympathy

Answer 9

-war stimulated SA industry-> higher demand for armed forces-> less available abroad -expansion of factories -manufacturing developed so Black unskilled workers needed -higher wages -money invest in basic black education to ensure educated workers -money invested in segregated healthcare to ensure healthy workers -whites lost education advantage heightening the threat and competition -70% increase in black men in industry but only 30% of white men -Np exploited fear and insecurity by promising to protect employment ingot services and factories and avoid them the ignominy of working under black supervision

Answer 10

£128 and £32

Answer 11

-NP campaign exploited whites grievances -Black wages risen from one fifth of white wages to a quarter -white farmers resented black workers in city as they could earn more rather than acting as cheap labour for farmers -campaigning took advantage of white concerns: promised to remove threat of African workers, move blacks to reserves -campaign appealed to different groups: NP promised white farmers a supply of cheap black labour and white industrialists a flexible apartheid enabling blacks to work in cities temporarily -Westminster constituency system meant rural areas had more seats per person so the NP acquired a majority of seats despite having 38% of the vote compared to 49% UP

Answer 12

established they offered voters total regulation of African employment and movement and defined Apartheid in vague terms

Answer 13

-business as usual -total segregation is impractical -African urbanisation needed to supply workers

Answer 14

portrayed the UP as pro-integration this was believable because of the changed that took place during WW2 and that the UP was generally more liberal e.g. their minister of health aimed to build a healthcare system serving all races

Answer 15

NP- 38% UP-49%

Answer 16

-intensified the whites pre-existing concerns -job competition -186,000 white fought in war and 300,000 total SA -boosted industry as difficulties importing -Black urbanisation -Blacks took the opportunity of being needed by the white economy to demand improvements: ->poor conditions/overcrowded squatter camps ->organised trade unions (allowed) and boycotts -black activism scared whites

Answer 17

200,000 in 1933 and 300,000 in 1945

Answer 18

* Racially defined groups within South African society deserved tailor-made facilities and through separate development all racial groups would progress * Already were laws removing blacks from the franchise (right to vote) and limiting where they could buy land * The National Party gradually instigated apartheid through parliament and legislation * Not all laws could be passed quickly as some required a greater understanding of the fine distinctions within South African society therefore commissions (a group of people entrusted by the government) were formed to advance the apartheid

Answer 19

narrow victory so prioritised maintaining political power

Answer 20

-appointed six white members for Namibia where Nationalists and support (former German colony now rules by SA as a mandate under the UN) -nationalists determined to make coloured people a separate racial category -own institutions and space -urgent as still has a vote in the central parliamentary election and votes were overwhelmingly for the UP -simple majority in parliament could enact legislation BUT coloured vote in the Cape protected and required a 2/3 majority to change it

Answer 21

-Removed the coloured vote -passed with a simple majority (less than 2/3) -constitutional battle fought and judges initially accepted act was invalid due to no 2/3 majority -BUT the gov appointed new Afrikaner judges and Afrikaner senate -NP prepared to act ruthlessly to seize political power -winning wider support among whites

Answer 22

400,000 to 600,000 gained comfortable majority in parliamentary seats for the next 40 years

Answer 23

482,000 to 799,000

Answer 24

Black right diminished in white controlled areas but they would be beneficiaries of increasing fuller rights in self-governing territories

Answer 25

Minister of Native Affairs 1950-58 and PM 1958-66

Answer 26

-him and his staff convinced themselves that African people still saw themselves as tribal people with their primary identity linked to their kingdom, language, and rural zone -BANTU AUTHORITIES ACT aimed to harness the institution of African chieftaincy and ensure traditional authorities were appointed throughout the reserves -aim: place responsibility for local government onto a conservative rural African leadership that would cooperate with the gov -abolished the Natives' Representative Council which was the only means by which urban Africas could express their views on the government

Answer 27

-envisaged African self governing units based around traditional authorities -gave Afrikaners hope that African people would welcome separate development

Answer 28

-assigned everyone into 4 race categories -national register and identity documents so race could be public knowledge -tech to define and monitor racial boundaries -ID cards

Answer 29

-cities -damaging effect on Black communities- forcibly removed -African townships built by municipalities on the edge of town -there remained areas close to the centre where coloured, Indian, or Africans owned houses, shops, businesses or white owned letting to Africans -Group Areas Act had the powers to eradicate these so central parts of cities would be in the hands of whites -divided country based on race

Answer 30

Sophiatown (Joburg), District Six (CT), Cato Manor (Durban)

Answer 31

-first victim -Africans WERE able to hold private land and it was not subject to the same restrictive regulations as municipal townships -racially mixed mainly African -housed 60,000 -wealthy professionals e.g. former president of ANC Dr Xuma -close to city centre attracted writers and journalists from the Drum Magazine -recorded the hard drinking, racy, shebeens- illegal bars, young street criminals (tsotsis) and gangsters -Sophiatowns reputation made it an early target for the NP -planning for its removal began in 1950 and was done in 6 years despite resistance

Answer 32

-third largest city housing 450,000 in 1951 -1/3 Indian, 1/3 African, 1/3 white -Indians owned land near city centre and Cato Manor near white suburbs -Indians let land out to African tenants who built shacks and houses -during the 1940s the land filled with shack settlements -1949 Africans attacked Indians who they felt were exploiting them -142 people killed and over 1,000 injured during riots and police suppression -1950s gov imposed group areas act -1965 shacks largely removed from Cato Manor and Africans sent to a far township -41,000 Indians moved -private property ownership was permitted in Indian suburbs but not in African townships

Answer 33

-residential and business area near Cape Town city centre -largely coloured -group areas act enforced from 1966 -60,000 forcibly removed and resettled on the distant Cape flats -district six buildings bulldozed -communities and valuable inner city architectural heritage destroyed to implement a racial ideology

Answer 34

reservations of benches, buses, beaches etc

Answer 35

entrenched and broadened the principle of a hierarchy of rights and made it legal to provide separate facilities for Black people which were not of an equal quality

Answer 36

reducing African migrants to cities

Answer 37

wanted the cities to be a zone where whites were protected from cheap African labour, protest, and crime

Answer 38

-require a reference book for each African adults

Answer 39

-gave urban rights to a minority of Africans who were born in town, worked for ten years in town, or lived there for 15 years -African families not allowed to buy houses in cities and townships which undermined their security and capacity to accumulate family wealth

Answer 40

government recognised the need for an stable urban African workforce

Answer 41

* Passes for Africans to enter and remain in some white areas had existed since start 19th century – regularised nationally in 1952 – women were included for the first time; Africans were now not allowed in urban areas for more than 72 hours without a special permit stating they were legally employed – * Had to prove they had permission to be in the area by showing a reference book with lots of information in – not having it on you carried a prison sentence – -policed -measures resented -Africans stopped and houses searched -police brutality -central issue for political African opposition -failed to keep Africans out of cities -prepared to brave the pass laws for job opportunities -the African urban population rose from 1.8 million (1946) to 3.5 million (1960) -some white employers colluded with workers to bypass influx control

Answer 42

164,324 in 1952 to 384,497 in 1962

Answer 43

-segregated -some blacks attended elite mission schools where they were offered a broad syllabus and taught by white and black teachers -most schools funded by gov and managed by local church gave only a basic primary education -school system inadequate for mass education

Answer 44

-extended education to African children -removed state subsidies from denominational schools (most Africans educated in mission schools from state subsidies with 1/16 of the funding that went to white education) -segregated content -African schools directly under state control -the fear of tsotsis (youth gangs) was a driver behind the expansion of education -NP believed expanding African education was necessary for the labour market -the need for African workers in factors and shops was growing and unskilled workers were no longer adequate to meet the demand -education designed to limit how far they could advance-> education only prepared for limited roles and opportunities e.g. some technical training to enable low level industrial roles -some degree of literacy/numeracy in English and Afrikaans was seen as valuable in building an efficient Black workforce -educational materials redesigned to produce compliant Africans and make Africans believe in the superiority of whites

Answer 45

-ensured Fort Hare was under government control -before the 1950s black students who finished their metric and came from wealthier backgrounds could attend uni of Fort Hare (and a few hundred admitted to Cape Town uni and Witwatersrand) where they had the same training as white students -Fort Hare became a key centre of black student opposition -The act planned for the full segregation by race of the largely English language unis and set out plans for new unis for African ethnic groups -Blacks banned from attending white unis

Answer 46

 Establishing the principles of separation of the races and preferential treatment for whites – it was made clear that separate facilities need not be equal  Repression and restrictions of free speech for blacks  Changing the nature of the state – increasing the power of the police and army/reducing the power of the courts to administer justice  A desire to establish a permanent settlement (one that would be difficult to dismantle if the NP lost an election)  To allow whites to exploit Africans to make more money

Answer 47

banned from trade unions and strikes

Answer 48

prohibition of mixed marriages 1949 immorality act- 1950

Answer 49

8x more spent on white education: (for Black education) large classes, poorly qualified teachers, poorly paid teachers

Answer 50

-Verwoerd took the 1951 literacy census as an indication that the school system was inadequate -fear of street gangs/tsosis -urban gangs concerning gov-> around 20,000 in the cities didn't attend schools and couldn't be employed-> joining gangs helped them earn around 10 rand daily so many decided to join -being unskilled and illiterate was not longer adequate for the growing sphere of jobs

Answer 51

-banned communism and political groups against apartheid -NP saw communism as a threat and had the power to arrest whoever concerned them -racial equality was seen as communism

Answer 52

-in response to non-violent campaigns against apartheid -sentenced anyone who broke a law to 3 years and anyone encouraging the breaking of laws/protesting to 5 years

Answer 53

-believed economic development of homelands would help advance apartheid -reported that Bantustans could be transformed into huge state investments of over £100 million -said agricultural plots in Bantustans were too small and migrant labour was undermining agriculture -recommended creating a group of full time farmers by increasing plot size but this meant pushing families off land to create bigger economic units for farming -Tomlinson supported major funding for rural industries -encouraged SA and foreign to invest in rural areas

Answer 54

-rejected his recommendations as didn't want white SA to support funding on large scale -didnt want rural industries in homelands to compete with urban white businesses -said Bantu should develop at their own pace and didn't allow external investment -didnt want millions of Africans to lose land/home in Bantustans as they would have no option but to migrate to cities for work which is what he wanted to avoid

Answer 55

-less than the recommended amount invested in homelands -concerns about soil erosion: war years/pre apartheid era, and government officials worried about environmental degradation in homeland reserves as this would undermine agriculture-> intensify poverty-> Africans would have to migrate to cities

Answer 56

-developed by officials-> strategy to stop environmental degradation and let Africans intensify farming without destroying soil -officials thought livestock was the reason for degradation-> divide pastures with barbed wire into smaller paddocks -animals moved between paddocks throughout the year to prevent over-grazing -officials moved rural families from scattered settlements to compact villages -over 1 million forced to move into villages in the 50s/60s -removals into villages were deeply resented as they destroyed some traditional ways of living

Answer 57

-substantial need areas of white owned land bought to extend homelands BUT still small % in comparison to all of SA land -NP didn't want to divide SA equally -Africans were going to be divided by language groups and origins but whites are whites

Answer 58

-held to spread the idea of equality and draw up the Freedom Charter -ANC publicly declared themselves

Answer 59

-ANC call a nationwide meeting with all the organisations they'd been working with -promoted the elimination of racial discrimination -had the demands of all anti-apartheid groups e.g. Indian Congress, Coloured, trade unions -contained what the people of SA really wanted -Did not completely disagree with communism as needed communist support -was the basis of ANC campaign till 1994 -Charter Congress met 26 June 1955 Kliptown, Joburg -the crowd was surrounded by police which made it difficult as most leaders were banned -Mandela and Silsulu watched in secret -3000 delegates still made it

Answer 60

-arrested 156 Congress leaders despite some of them not even being at the gathering

Answer 61

-the 156 people who had been arrested were accused of communism and treason because of their connection to the Freedom Charter -by the time the trial started only 95 still faced charges -prosecution argued that the goal of the FC was to overthrow the gov -expert on communism admitted that it was just a natural reaction to harsh conditions -eventually all accused were released after being declared non-guilty

Answer 62

-important members of opposition groups had been away for long periods of time and even after they were released they were either on banning orders or under attack constantly weakening the organisation and strength of opposition -more drastic members of the ANC Youth League didn't agree with the ANC interacting with other races so this caused a division as they left to join the PAC weakening ANC numbers -special legislation passed creating a special court with 3 judges instead of 1 -minister of justice handpicked judges which gave the opportunity for them to be biased and lenient

Answer 63

-the government was adamant on using all of its political powers on oppressing anyone who was against the Treason Trial -laws became tougher against Africans to prevent them from speaking up -banning orders introduced for those suspected in being involved with communism or resistance -important for the gov to diminish any movement of resistance against the apartheid and the TT was a way for the gov to oppress Africans -Supression of Communism Act (1950) meant anyone could be banned without trial or evidence, gave the gov power to force people to: live in remote areas without their families, not being allowed to move around the country, always being watched by police, banning them from meeting other members and therefore organising further opposition, and writing and broadcasting which limited their influence

Answer 64

-resistance leaders were in joined cells after being arrested which gave them the opportunity to openly meet which the gov had gone so far to prevent

Answer 65

-Mandela, Sisulu, and Tambo opened an all black law firm in 1952 often discussing how to achieve equality -Lembede joined who was an Africanist and criticised the ANC for trying to impress white people -Lembede became president of the ANC -Sisulu and his friends formed the Youth League -didnt want to work with the Indian National Congress as they believed they had different problems -Didnt want to work with the SA communist party either as they were multiracial and not Christian -often broke up their meetings

Answer 66

-founded in 1944 -more radical movement -inspired by global anti-colonial rhetoric and West African nationalists -the NP victory in 1948 encouraged the launch of their Programme of Action in 1949

Answer 67

-more confrontation approach -boycotts, resistance, work strikes, mass action -called for African consciousness and nationalism -Most members had gone to uni of Fort Hare and together they overthrew Dr Xuma who was the moderate ANC president replaced with Albert Luthuli 1952

Answer 68

Communists accepted an idea of a 2 phase revolution: 1) work with African nationalists to achieve a national democratic revolution where everyone could exercise their full political rights regardless of colour 2) socialist revolution

Answer 69

* The ANC took advantage of the cold war to gain support and funding from communist groups * A way for communism to object to Capitalism would be to support the ANC in capitalist SA * SA was an exploitative state * A key way communism sought to put down capitalism was to present it as racist * Countries that may be under decision between communism or capitalism might be swayed by the fact that capitalism was racist as the were against racism because of colonialism * The ANC was being supported and funded by communists so if the NP used this to discredit them the ANC could lose support & justification for repression- needed to do this to prevent other countries intervening as many allies believed in the idea of freedom so the West could turn a blind eye if they could convince them that the ANC was communist * For all the capitalist countries SA was an embarrassment as communists could use the apartheid to show that capitalism is racist etc * NP tried to use laws to disable opposition * Suppression of communism act was purposefully subtle

Answer 70

-White, Indians and coloured people not accepted into ANC -SAIC (indian congress) -group of white liberals emerged who were highly critical of apartheid -liberals attracted black support but suspicious of ANC and communists -Liberalism was weakened by white fears and the attraction of radical African nationalism

Answer 71

strategy- groups of volunteers to break racial restrictions like curfews and segregated facilities and risk arrest which would fill prisons and pressure the gov -Mandela was volunteer in chief -influenced by ideas of non-violent civil disobedience and Ghandi -Target cities were Joburg and Durban but support was low -focus on Eastern Cape e.g. Port Elizabeth and East London instead

Answer 72

-heart of campaign with 35,000 people -Africans lived in shacks and there were high levels of poverty and immorality rate was 37% -local ANC led by Alcott Gwentshe and C.J. Fazzie (more radical) -East London is close to Fort Hare-> youth league militants found route to city -Began in June 1952 with 1500 people -audience shouted ANC slogans -Gwentshe spoke about white dominance and independence -ANC activists wore khaki uniforms and ANC colours and could be easily identified -Protestors rejected the laws and used white only facilities-> many willingly arrested-> so that courts would clog up and force apartheid laws away BUT most were just sentenced to hard labour -more youths advocated violence- a police informer was chased and stoned

Answer 73

-campaign split between moderate Gwentshe and radical Fazzie -Riots spread and eventually the Minister of Justice sent armed reinforcement to ban meetings for a month

Answer 74

-activists advertised the meetings as religious gatherings so they couldn't be banned -police went and found 800 people meeting who started throwing sticks and stones at them -police couldn't stop the meeting -they claimed there was a baton attack and someone had a gun -open fire themselves, causing the crowd to disperse and stone the officers and burn buildings down -2 white people were killed: an insurance salesman and a Catholic medical missionary who's car was set alight with her inside -the news of her death spread quickly, and this was a shocking devastating incident -7 African deaths recorded and 18 injuries -however there were reports of this being much higher -ANC called off campaign

Answer 75

-male leaders patriarchal/conservative views about women's role -women only admitted as members in 1943 -Women's League founded instead in 1948 which incorporated women's organisations in ANC -in 1955 Gov extended pass laws to women as many were moving to cities from rural -Lillian Ngoyi staged mass protest against passes and got petition signatures and 20,000 marches on union buildings in Pretoria -1957 protests outside pass office in Joburg -women also led resistance to forced removals in Cato Manor in late 1950s

Answer 76

Bantu authorities and Betterment helped trigger series of rural movements throughout rural districts in the late 1950s

Answer 77

-in 1957-58 people tried to prevent gov intervention in their political and social lives -due to the Department of Native Affairs trying to turn Sekhukhenland into a homeland with tribal authorities running it in the 1950s -Many men living there were migrant workers who spent most of their time in Joburg and Pretoria -some joined ANC -many migrant workers had also established organisations to help them with finance, transport, and getting money back to their rural homes -therefore they were strongly against the idea of Bantustans as they wouldn't be able to work in urban areas which was an important source of money for them -they adapted ANC's ideas and were also dedicated to the idea of equal rights -they didn't want the chiefs who supported culling of cattle and didn't want them as part of bantustans -in 1957 gov was set to impose Bantu Authorities Act with chiefs -However in May, 9 of the gov officials had been beaten or stabbed to death/burnt out of their own homes -police was then sent in who arrested hundreds of people in connection and sent them to trial -the only chief who was trying to protect the interest of migrant workers was arrested and deported which was an obstacle for them as he was the one helping them bring out their own identity

Answer 78

-based in Joburg -wanted to maintain their distinct political identity and promoted the idea of 'Africa for Africans' -most support came from teachers -they thought non-Africans had too much influence in the Congress movements -Freedom charter written by multiracial committee and PAC disagreed with this -they believed independence meant the land would be given to Africans in 1958 ANC leaders were re-elected due to the business of treason trial -when Leballo protested at this decision he was expelled -in an ANC conference Luthuli compared africanist to tribes-> Africanist walked out -the Africanist then tried to found a separate organisation within the ANC -April 1959 they held a convention for the PAC and read support telegrams from Ghana and Guinea-> reported in the Black and White press -ANC members said the gov allowed PAC to freely speak and organise themselves because their idea of split nationalism was similar to their idea of separate development