The psychobiological process of memory

Question 1

What is Atkinson Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model?

Answer 1

Describes human memory as consisting of three distinguishable kinds of memory.

Question 2

What two features does Atkinson Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model show?

Answer 2

Structural features - Permanent built-in features that do not vary between situations.
EG: Function, storage, capacity and duration.

Control features - Selected and used by each individual and may vary. They are under conscious control.
EG: Attention, rehearsal, retrieval strategy.

Question 3

What is Sensory Memory?

Answer 3

The entry point for all new information from the external environment
Stores vast quantities for several hundred milliseconds (duration)
If not attended to, the memory trace decays and is lost.
Information attended to is transferred to short-term memory; may bypass and go directly to long-term memory.

Raw and not encoded so lots of information can stay here, the capacity may be unlimited.
Allows impressions to overlap so we see the world as continuous
Stays just long enough for us to attend to and select information or not select it.

Question 4

What are the two types of Sensory Memory?

Answer 4

Iconic Memory
Echoic Memory

Question 5

What is Iconic Memory?

Answer 5

Visual sensory memory
0.3 of a second
Images last just long enough to recognise and process the information.

Question 6

What is Echoic Memory?

Answer 6

Auditory sensory memory
Stores information for 3-4 seconds
Important for understanding speech.

Question 7

What is Short Term Memory

Answer 7

Temporary working memory is where we manipulate information to perform everyday functions, and that we are consciously aware of.

Question 8

What is the capacity of STM?

Answer 8

Limited capacity of around 7 +/- 2 items (5-9)
When STM is full, new items can only be added by pushing out old items.

Question 9

What is the duration of STM?

Answer 9

Duration of only 12-18 seconds but can sometimes linger for 30 seconds

Question 10

How does information get from STM to LTM

Answer 10

Rehearsal is crucial to enable further encoding and preventing decay of the memory trace.
Decay occurs when information is not rehearsed and simply fades with disuse over time.
EG: Forgetting what you were going to say because someone else has to finish first.
Information only stays in STM while we process, examine or manipulate it.

Question 11

What is STM Chunking

Answer 11

Chunking is grouping separate bits of information into a larger single unit or ‘chunk’ of information

Numbers, words, abbreviations, acrostics.

Increases the capacity of the STM.

Question 12

What is Long Term Memory?

Answer 12

Duration - Holds information relatively permanently
Capacity - Unlimited
Highly organised
Information can fail to be retrieved from long-term memory if the right strategies are not used.
Related information can also cause interference.

Question 13

What are the two types of LTM

Answer 13

Explicit Memory
Implicit Memory

Question 14

What is Explicit Memory?

Answer 14

Memory that occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved or stated.
Words, images or both
Most common tests of explicit memory include recall & recognition

Question 15

What are the two types of Explicit Memory?

Answer 15

Episodic
Semantic

Question 16

What is Episodic memory?

Answer 16

Memory of personally experienced events.
Time, place, feelings.
Personal diary, said to be autobiographical.
Allows you to connect past and present.

Question 17

What is Semantic memory

Answer 17

Memory of facts and knowledge about the world.
Facts & knowledge learned at school
Everyday facts & general knowledge
Meaning of words
Rules
Areas of expertise
These memories do not include time and place

Question 18

What is Implicit Memory?

Answer 18

Memory that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval.
You may not be aware of remembering as it usually occurs effortlessly.

Question 19

What is Procedural Memory?

Answer 19

Memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned previously.
Eg: how to brush your teeth or ride a bike.
Little or no conscious effort to retrieve.
They are difficult to put into words – you just ‘know’

Question 20

What is Classically Conditioned Memory?

Answer 20

Usually involved in fear/anxiety
Eg: You are afraid to go to the dentist due to past experience which have caused anxiety, even though you may not be able to state this explicitly.

Question 21

What is the duration of LTM

Answer 21

Relatively Permanent

Question 22

What is the capacity of LTM

Answer 22

Unlimited

Question 23

What does the Hippocampus do in terms of memory?

Answer 23

Consolidates new explicit memories (turning short-term explicit memories into long-term)
May also assist in the retrieval of explicit LTM
Important for spatial memory – location of objects and places (our inner GPS)
Encodes explicit memories

Question 24

What are the effects of trauma to the Hippocampus?

Answer 24

Difficulty forming new explicit memories: Anterograde amnesia
Key case study – H.M – removal of hippocampus lead to severe anterograde amnesia (unable to store new explicit memories), but could form new procedural memories

Question 25

What does the Amygdala do in terms of memory?

Answer 25

Involved in processing emotional aspects of memory eg. fear, anger
It helps consolidation and then transfers to other parts of the brain (eg. cerebral cortex) for permanent storage
If an event involves fear/anger then the amygdala will activate the hippocampus. This results in deeper encoding of the event
Also involved in classical conditioning of emotional responses.(this is a type of implicit memory)
Retrieves explicit memories

Question 26

What are the effects of trauma to the Amygdala?

Answer 26

Not reacting to fearful stimuli (lack of emotional memory).
Unable to acquire classically conditioned fear responses (implicit memory).

Question 27

What does the Neo Cortex do in terms of memory?

Answer 27

The cerebral cortex is the sheet of wrinkly-looking neural tissue that forms the outer surface of the brain.
The most recently evolved part of the cerebral cortex is called the neocortex
Memories transferred from the hippocampus to the neocortex.
Long term storage
A crucial role is an interaction with the hippocampus in the formation, consolidation, storage and retrieval of long-term explicit memories.
Long-term explicit semantic and episodic memories are widely stored throughout the neocortex.
Stored where the memory was originally made or processed.

Question 28

What are the effects of trauma to the Neo Cortex?

Answer 28

Difficulty retrieving previously stored memories
The exact effect depends on the area and degree of damage
eg. frontal lobe damage results in difficulties with remembering the sequence of events

Question 29

What does the Basal Ganglia do in terms of memory?

Answer 29

Role in long-term implicit memories involving motor skills.
Involved in habituation
…The process of growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus. It involves a decrease in responsiveness following repeated exposure to a stimulus
learning not to respond to a stimulus that occurs repeatedly
These memories are also implicit as this change occurs without conscious awareness.

Question 30

What are the effects of trauma to the Basal Ganglia?

Answer 30

Parkinson’s disease sufferers have damage to the dopamine-producing neurons in the basal ganglia, and have issues with voluntary movement.
Huntington’s disease - degeneration of the basal ganglia - have difficulties learning and remembering motor skills

Question 31

What does the Cerebellum do in terms of memory?

Answer 31

Responsible for the consolidation of procedural memory.
Formation of memories related to motor skills and habits (procedural memory - implicit)
Includes memory for posture and gait (walking style) and coordination of voluntary movements requiring sequence eg. dance moves, playing an instrument, typing
Classical conditioning of reflex responses (implicit memory)
Encoding implicit memories

Question 32

What are the effects of trauma to the Cerebellum?

Answer 32

Difficulty with voluntary motor movements and coordination
Cannot form classically conditioned responses that involve reflexive movements
eg. would not learn to flinch at word hat, when paired with water gun

Question 33

What is the purpose of Episodic Memory?

Answer 33

The purpose of episodic memory is not only to remember past events, but to think about the future, thus traveling backwards & forward in time.

Question 34

What does Episodic Memory do?

Answer 34

Has two functions/capabilities
Retrieving autobiographical past
Constructing possible imagined future
It is hippocampal-dependent.
Autobiographical memories are stored in episodic memory.
We retrieve and become consciously aware of these by engaging in ‘mental time travel’ and place ourselves in the context of the event; this allows us to ‘re-experience’

Question 35

What is Semantic Memory?

Answer 35

Semantic memory also includes ‘self-knowledge’, including facts about yourself. This is also autobiographical in nature.

Semantic memory is not time-related so it does not require mental time travel.
For example, we don’t need mental time travel to remember that grass is green.

Supports the reconstruction of episodic memory in the STM.

Question 36

What is Alzheimer’s Disease?

Answer 36

A neurodegenerative disease where there is a widespread degeneration of brain neurons. This causes memory loss, a decline in cognitive and social skills and personality changes.

Question 37

What are the symptoms of Alzheimer’s Disease?

Answer 37

Early symptoms include anterograde amnesia for episodic-autobiographical memories and semantic knowledge. People are unable to remember recent personally experienced events, nor facts associated with those events.
Early symptoms also include difficulty with episodic future-thinking and generating voluntary mental imagery.
As the disease progresses, people experience retrograde amnesia for the events of their lives, with more recent memories being lost first.
Semantic memory deficits follow.

Question 38

What happens in the brain with Alzheimer’s Disease?

Answer 38

Early hippocampal damage:
explains why anterograde amnesia appears first, followed by retrograde amnesia for episodic memories.
Causes impairments in imagining novel experiences

As the disease spreads to the prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes:
people lose the ability to retrieve semantic memories, including voluntary generation of visual mental imagery.
They also have difficulty finding words and naming familiar objects.

Question 39

What happens in Neural Degeneration?

Answer 39

Amyloid plaques
build up between neurons and disrupt their functioning.

Neurofibrillary tangles
Form inside the neuron cell body, which interrupts synaptic transmission.

Question 40

How is Alzheimer’s Diagnosed?

Answer 40

There is currently no single or simple diagnostic test for Alzheimer’s.

It is only accurately diagnosed through autopsy.

The rate of mental deterioration is assessed by examining :
Memory
General knowledge
Intellect
Personal skills

Question 41

What is Aphantasia

Answer 41

Aphantasia is the absence of visual imagery.
People with Aphantasia can’t picture anything in their “mind’s eye”.