The Periodic Table Flashcards
How are elements in the periodic table arranged?
Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
What is a period?
- The name of each horizontal row of elements in the periodic table.
What is periodicity?
- The elements in a period show trends (gradual changes) in properties across the period.
- SO…..Periodicity is this repeating pattern of trends (both physical and chemical) across each period.
- e.g. the trend across period 1 is the same as the trend across period 2, 3, 4 etc.
Examples of trends?
1st ionisation energy (Physical property)
Electronegativity (Chemical property)
Boiling point and Melting Pont (Physical property)
What is a group?
The name of each vertical column of elements in the periodic table.
Why do elements in a group have similar properties?
The elements in a group show similar chemical properties because 1) they have same number of electrons in their outershells and these occupy 2) the same type of orbitals (similar electron configurations).
Why are trends similar between different periods and similar between the different groups?
The repeating pattern of similarity is caused by the underlying repeating pattern of electron configuration.
How can trends down a group affect periodic trends:
Moving across a period element changes from a metal to a non-metal.
Moving down the periods, this change (metal to non-metal or vice versa) moves further to the right.
e.g. at top of group 14 is carbon, a non-metal, whereas at the bottom, is tin and lead, which is a metal.
There are three different types of elements on the periodic table, what are they and how are they different?
Metals, non-metals and metalloids/semi-metals.
Metalloids have properties between those of a metal and a non-metal. Examples: boron, silicon, germanium.
As you know, the larger the value of n, the further the shell is from the nucleus and the higher the energy level.
Within a shell, the sub-shell energies increase in the order of? State the exception.
s sub-shell < p sub-shell < d sub-shell < f sub-shell
However, the empty 4s orbitals, are at a lower energy level than the empty 3d orbitals. This means 4s fills before 3d.
4s fills before 3d, what about when these orbitals are emptied?
4s fills before 3d because the empty 4s orbitals are at a slightly lower energy level than the empty 3d orbitals. However, when there are electrons in the 3d orbitals, the 4s orbitals are now at a higher energy level than the 3d orbitals so when ionization occurs electrons are lost from the 4s orbital before they’re lost from the 3d orbitals.
SO 4s fills first and is emptied first.
The periodic table is divided into sub-shells which…
Draw the periodic table and label all the sub-shells.
…corresponds to the position of the atom’s outermost electrons.
How to use the periodic table to determine electron configuration. - use oxygen as an example.
Period of oxygen: 2
Orbital section of the period: p-orbital block
Position of element in the sub-shell block: 4th element in 2p block.
This means its 4 outermost electrons of oxygen are found in the 2p sub-shell, written as 2p⁴
So electron configuration of oxygen is 1s²2s²2p⁴
How can electron configuration be shortened?
Write the shortened electron configuration Li, Na, P and O
By basing the inner shell electron configuration on the noble gas that comes before the element in the periodic table. Li: 1s²2s¹ or [He]2s¹ Na: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s¹ or [Ne]3s¹ P: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p³ or [Ne]3s²3p³ O: 1s²2s²2p⁴ or [He]2s²2p⁴
Define ionisation?
Ionisation is when atoms lose or gain electrons to form positive or negative ions.
What is plasma?
Plasma refers to the mixture of positive and negative ions.
What is ionisation energy?
The energy needed to remove electrons and form positive ions.
Defien first ionisation energy (of an element)
The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions.
What is the general equation for first ionisation?
X(g) → X⁺(g) + e⁻
e.g. Na(g) → Na⁺(g) + e⁻
NOTE THAT THE ATOM AND IONS IN THE EQUATION ARE GASEOUS.
What state is the first (as well as second and third etc.) ionisation energy calculated in?
In the gaseous state. Both the atoms and ions must be gaseous.
What is nuclear attraction?
Negative electrons are held in their shells by their attraction to the positive nucleus - this is known as nuclear attraction.
How is this nuclear attraction broken? I.e. how are electrons removed?
By ionisation, where energy is supplied to the electron to overcome this nuclear attraction (no longer bound to the atom), forming a positive ion.
Which electrons are removed from the atom first and why?
Electrons in the outer shell are removed first as they are the furthest away from the nucleus so experience the least nuclear attraction and thus require the least ionisation energy.
So in conclusion, what is ionisation energy (energy required to remove an electron) dependant on?
The ionisation energy is dependant on the nuclear attraction of the electron. The greater the nuclear attraction, the greater the ionisation energy.
What is the nuclear attraction of an electron dependant on?
This is also what the ionisation energy is ultimately dependant on.
1) Atomic radius/distance from the nucleus
2) Nuclear charge
3) Electron shielding/screening
How does the atomic radius affect the nuclear attraction and why?
The larger the atomic radius, the smaller the nuclear attraction experienced by the outermost electrons. This is because the positive charge of the nucleus is further away from the outermost electrons.
How does the nuclear charge affect the nuclear attraction and why?
The greater the nuclear charge, i.e. the greater the number of protons, the greater the nuclear attraction experienced by the outershell electrons.
How does electron shielding affect the nuclear attraction.
Inner shells of electrons repel the outershell electrons because they are all negatively charged.
This repelling effect is called electron shielding/screening.
The more inner shells of electrons there are, the greater the electron shielding and thus the smaller the nuclear attraction experienced by the outershell electrons.
What is the successive ionisation energies?
Successive ionisation energies are a measure of the amount of energy required to remove each electron in turn.
What is second ionisation energy (of an element)?
The second ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one electron from each ion in one mole of gaseous +1 ions to form one mole of gaseous 2+ ions.
What is the general equation for second ionisation?
X⁺(g) → X²⁺(g) + e⁻
e.g. Na⁺(g) → Na²⁺(g) + e⁻
NOTE THAT THE ATOM AND IONS IN THE EQUATION ARE GASEOUS.
ALSO NOTE THAT THE CHARGE ON THE ION PRODUCED WILL TELL YOU WHICH SUCCESSIVE IONISATION HAS OCCURRED.
What is the general equation for third ionisation?
X²⁺(g) → X³⁺(g) + e⁻
e.g. Na²⁺(g) → Na³⁺(g) + e⁻
NOTE THAT THE ATOM AND IONS IN THE EQUATION ARE GASEOUS.
What is the trend in successive ionisation energy?
Each successive ionisation energy is higher than the one before.
Why is each successive energy higher than the one before?
- This is because as each electron is removed, there is less repulsion between the remaining electrons (in the shell), so as a result, the remaining electrons will be drawn in slightly closer to the nucleus. A 2+ ion will have small radius than a 1+ ion.
- The positive nuclear charge will outweigh the negative charge every time an electron is removed. Proton to electron ratio is greater in a 2+ ion than in a 1+ ion.
- So each time an electron is removed (successively), the nuclear attraction increases. More energy is needed to remove each successive electron.
- When the electrons in the outer shell have all been removed, electrons from the next shell are removed if more ionisation occurs. This takes more energy than an electron being removed from the same shell, because of the closer proximity of the nucleus (i.e much smaller ionic radius).
When do we use ‘ionic radius’ instead of ‘atomic radius’?
When we talk about the first ionisation energy the distance of the electron from the nucleus is effectively the atomic radius, however after the first electron is removed, the distance between the nucleus and the next electron has decreased. It is no longer the same as the atomic radius and is referred to as the “ionic radius” or “distance from the nucleus”
What is the trend in first ionisation energy across the period?
Same trend for second and third ionisation energy
- As you go across each period:
- Nuclear charge ↑ (number of protons increases) so greater attraction for outershell electrons
- Atomic/ionic radius ↓ - Electrons are being added to the same energy level = electrons have greater attraction for positive nucleus = so are drawn inwards slightly.
- Electron shielding ↔ does not change, because the number of inner electron shells remains the same across the period.
- Therefore, nuclear attraction ↑
- So going across the period, more energy required to overcome this attraction so first ionisation energy ↑
Where does first ionisation energy drop across the period?
- There is a decrease from Group 2 to 13, and group 15 to 16.
What is the reason for the drop in first ionisation energy from group 2 to group 13?
- The outermost electron in group 13 elements is in a p-orbital whereas the outermost electron in group 2 elements is in an s-orbital.
- P-orbitals are at a slightly higher energy level than s-orbitals, so are further away from the nucleus. Thus the outermost electron in group 13 experiences less nuclear attraction, so less energy is required to remove it and a lower first ionisation energy is observed
What is the reason for the drop in first ionisation energy from group 15 to group 16?
- Unlike in group 13 to 15, where each of the occupied p-orbitals contain a single electron, but in group 16, the outermost electron is spin-paired in the px orbital (the first orbital of the p orbitals).
- Electrons that are spin-paired experience some repulsion between them and therefore the outermost electron in group 16 is requires less energy to remove, and a slightly lower ionisation energy is observed.
What is the trend in first ionisation energy down the group?
CAN THE TREND ACROSS THE PERIOD AND DOWN THE GROUP IN FIRST IONISATION ENERGY BE APPLIED TO SECOND IONISATION ENERGY?
As you go down the group:
- Atomic/ionic radius ↑ - Number of electron shells increases, so the distance of the outershell electrons from the nucleus increases.
- Electron shielding ↑ - due to more inner shells.
- Nuclear charge also ↑ (number of protons increases) but this is not the determining factor in this case.
- Nuclear attraction ↓
- So as you go down the group, less energy is required to overcome this attraction so first ionisation energy ↓
When moving doen the group, nuclear charge increases however, nuclear attraction does not. Why not?
The effect of increasing nuclear charge is outweighed by the effect of the increasing distance from the nucleus (atomic radius) and electron shielding.
Define a metallic bond.
A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between the fixed positive metal ions (cations) and the delocalised electrons that are free to move throughout the giant metallic lattice.
Structure of a metal?
3D Giant metallic lattice held together by metallic bonds which act in all directions and A metallic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the fixed positive metal ions (cations) and the delocalised electrons that are free to move throughout the giant metallic lattice.
These delocalised electrons are shared between all the metal ions.
Over the whole structure the charges must balance.
Where do the delocalised electrons in the giant metallic lattice come from?
The formation of positive metal ions, is due to the outer-shell electrons becoming delocalised. These delocalised electrons are shared between all the metal ions.
Once an electron becomes delocalised can you tell which particular positive ion it originated from?
No
Properties of metals due to their giant metallic lattices?
High melting and boiling points
Good electrical conductivity
Malleable and Ductile
Insoluble
Why do metals have high metling and boiling points?
- A large amount of energy is required to 1) overcome the strong and large number of metallic bonds in the giant metallic lattice and to 2) dislodge the metal ions from their rigid fixed positions in the lattice.
What else affects the melting point and boiling point of giant metallic lattices?
The number of delocalised electrons per ion affects the melting and boiling points. The more delocalised electrons there are per ion, the stronger metallic bonds which result in higher melting and boiling poitns. For example, Mg²⁺ has 2 delocalised electrons per ion so has a higher melting and boiling point than Na⁺ which has only one delocalised electron per ion.
Why do metals conduct electricity.
Metals can conduct electricity because the delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the giant metallic lattice, carrying charge.
Metals can conduct electricity as both a solid and a liquid.
Define ductile
Define Malleable
Ductile means it can be stretched/drawn out (into wires)
Malleable means it can be hammered into different shapes.