The Nile Valley 1882-1898

Question 1

What were British foreign policy concerns about Egypt in the 1870s?

Answer 1

-Britain feared other foreign powers (Russia, France) could take over if the Ottoman Empire collapsed
-After the humiliation of the Indian mutiny in 1857, Britain wanted to protect its prestigious worldwide status and not to be seen to give into nationalist movements

Question 2

What were the British economic concerns about Egypt in the 1870s?

Answer 2

-Desire to protect trade: up to 80% of Egyptian exports went to Britain by 1880 and 44% of its imports originated there
-Wanted to protect Suez Canal and route to India
-Wanted to protect British investors (bond holders)

Question 3

What were the political problems of the Ottoman Empire in the 1870s?

Answer 3

There was weak, bureaucratic Ottoman rule and local rulers (khedives) were poor administrators.

Question 4

What were the economic problems of the Ottoman Empire in the 1870s?

Answer 4

Under Ismail Pasha, Egypt’s debt rose from £3 million to £90 million. There was a reliance on French and British investment, with up to £100 million debt by 1870 and the interest rate on this rose to 20%. Khedive were forced to sell Suez shares but still went bankrupt in 1875-76.

Question 5

How did the American Civil War worsen Egypt’s economic problems in the 1870s?

Answer 5

During the American Civil War 1860-65, Egypt became the main supplier of raw cotton to Britain. When the war ended, the market collapsed, increasing Egypt’s economic problems.

Question 6

How did Britain and France establish political control over Egypt under the Dual System?

Answer 6

-British and French controller generals supervised Egyptian rule
-In 1879, the Khedive was replaced by his son, Tewfik Pasha, who acted as a puppet leader for Britain and France
-The British and French controlled the Khedive’s treasury, customs, railways, post offices and ports

Question 7

How did Britain and France establish economic control over Egypt under the Dual System?

Answer 7

-Major spending cuts to army and civil service
-Reduced interest on foreign debt (mostly held by themselves) to 5%
-Introduced sales taxes on food and goods to increase revenue

Question 8

What were the effects of Dual Control?

Answer 8

-Drops in living standards, unemployment and street rioting
-The rise of Egyptian nationalism under the leadership of popular army officer, Arabi Pasha

Question 9

How did the British deal with Arabi Pasha’s demands?

Answer 9

At a meeting of the Chamber of Notables in 1881, Pasha demanded a bigger army, removal of foreign officials and more power. By September 1881, Khedive Tawfiq had to replace his government with a more nationalist one and Arabi was made Minister of War in 1882. They had to compromise because Britain couldn’t afford to risk losing control to the nationalists as it would make them look very weak.

Question 10

What impact did the Suez Canal have on trade between Europe and the Eastern world?

Answer 10

Between the years 1876-1890, the traffic between Europe and the Eastern world multiplied threefold, highlighting the impact that the Suez Canal had on connecting previously detached economies.

Question 11

Why was Britain so determined to get control of the Suez Canal?

Answer 11

It dramatically shortened the journey to India and 80% of shipping that travelled through the canal was carried on British ships. Disraeli had 45% shares but France were the main shareholders. Britain wasn’t prepared to let France become too powerful in North Africa and the Middle East.

Question 12

What were the financial reasons for British intervention in Egypt in 1882?

Answer 12

Egyptians provided an important market for British exports and Khedive Ismail’s railway and harbour building projects had provided attractive contracts for British businesses. By 1880, Britain purchased 80% of Egypt’s exports and supplied 44% of their imports.

Question 13

What role did bond holders have in the decision for intervention in Egypt in 1882?

Answer 13

British bond-holders in the City of London were heavily exposed to any failure by Egypt to pay its debts and the British government was determined to make Egypt pay back its debts whatever that entailed.

Question 14

What was Gladstone’s personal interest in Egyptian intervention?

Answer 14

By 1882, 37% of Gladstone’s personal wealth was invested in Egyptian stocks.

Question 15

What were the political reasons for intervention in Egypt in 1882?

Answer 15

The Liberal Party under Gladstone wanted to show their strength. There would be serious political repercussions in allowing an authoritarian Egyptian nationalist to come to power.

Question 16

What were the humanitarian reasons for British intervention in Egypt?

Answer 16

Britain claimed that intervention was necessary to prevent European loss of life. On 11th June 1882, tensions in the city of Alexandria (where 1/5 of people were European) escalated into violent anti-Christian riots. At least 50 Europeans and 250 Egyptians were killed. Britain incorrectly blamed the riots on Arabi Pasha’s supporters.

Question 17

What was the Gambetta Note?

Answer 17

It stated that Britain and France regarded the maintenance of the khedive’s power as the best guarantee for the order and development of prosperity in Egypt.

Question 18

Why did the French not support British military intervention in Egypt in 1882 (thus increasing Britain’s power in Egypt)?

Answer 18

-Germany opposed intervention in Egypt and France didn’t want to risk offending them after being defeated by Prussia in 1870
-The French government didn’t support intervention
-France’s occupation of Tunisia stretched her resources
However, France still wanted to exert their influence and challenge British control

Question 19

How did the emergence of radical Islam in Sudan under the Mahdi lead to increased British control in Egypt?

Answer 19

The humiliating defeat of the Egyptian forces under Hicks in November 1883 by a force of 40,000 Mahdist fighters confirmed the threat posed. (6700 of 7000 Egyptians died). The Mahdi entrenched his forces in Sudan, always posing a potential threat to British interests in Egypt. Britain couldn’t afford to look weak with France and Germany always looking to increase their territory in this area.

Question 20

How did the appointment of Sir Evelyn Baring as Consul General in Egypt in 1883 increase British control of Egypt?

Answer 20

He believed there needed to be fundamental, long term changes made in agricultural infrastructure and governmental institutions in Egypt. This would require long term British intervention.

Question 21

How did Lord Salisbury and the Tories taking over government from the Liberals increase British control in Egypt?

Answer 21

Salisbury agreed with Baring that full reform of Egypt required 15 years. He was also not prepared to withdraw from Egypt if it meant giving the French a strategic advantage.

Question 22

What happened at the Constantinople Convention 1889?

Answer 22

An agreement for British withdrawal was reached with the Sultan in 1887. However French and Russian demands at the Constantinople Convention (demanded to invade Syria and Armenia if Britain was granted ongoing rights to enter Egypt) forced Britain to change tact from withdrawal from Egypt to maintaining their presence as it proved that France remained the greatest threat to the British Empire and they had to maintain their strategic interests.

Question 23

What were Evelyn Baring’s attitudes and ruling style?

Answer 23

He was convinced of the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race and believed that British supervision and execution of reforms was essential for the benefit of Egypt’s poorest subjects. He governed by the Granville doctrine (Egyptian ministers who disagreed with the British were dismissed) and put experienced British colonial administrators in positions of power. He ruled most peacefully with Khedive Tewfik but when Khedive Abbas Hilmi II took over in 1892, he challenged Baring before being forced to accept British control.

Question 24

What were Evelyn Baring’s economic achievements?

Answer 24

-Introduced stringent financial controls and public spending cuts to restore Egypt to solvency by 1887
-London Convention 1885 agreed a loan of £9 million to Egypt and £8 million was spent in stabilising the debt situation of Egypt
-Set up the National Bank and Post Office Savings Bank to reduce local money lending and extortion
-In the 1880s and 1890s, there was a massive increase in cotton production

Question 25

What were Evelyn Baring’s agricultural achievements?

Answer 25

Remaining £1 million of the London Convention spent on irrigation and cleaning the silted drainage canals of the Nile’s flood plains to improve agriculture and reduce malaria. Between 1882 and 1902, 8% of government revenue was devoted to agriculture and hydraulic improvements under the Public Works Department.

Question 26

What else did Evelyn Baring achieve?

Answer 26

Reorganised the army, stopped slave supply to Egypt, abolished forced labour, halted the supply of hashish, regulated alcohol licences and closed many gambling houses.

Question 27

What were Evelyn Baring’s economic failures?

Answer 27

-Put off fundamental tax reform, constrained by budgetary demands and cautious of upsetting large landowners, despite the inequalities
-Fellahin (peasants) didn’t benefit from Baring’s reforms- their food crops commanded lower prices and working conditions were poor

Question 28

What were Evelyn Baring’s other failures?

Answer 28

-Limited investment in education by refusing to fund secondary school education and raised tuition fees in primary schools to decrease enrolment
-Remained oblivious to the growth of fellahin nationalism at the end of the 19th century, forgetting the limits to fellahin mobility caused by the restrictions on education and the long delay in reforming the land tax

Question 29

What was the situation in Sudan?

Answer 29

The Egyptians had gained control since 1821 but this was resented. General Gordon had tried to end the slave trade in the 1870s with limited impact. Sudanese society, political structure and economy were all weak in the early 1880s. The Mahdi gathered strong support there from 1881 onwards.

Question 30

How did the Mahdi gain such strong support?

Answer 30

He turned the war into a religious one, proclaiming his mission to purify Islam and fight governments that didn’t embrace it. He was a very charismatic and influential religious leader who created a movement of militant Islam in Sudan. He also set up a religious state, with its capital at Omdurman in Sudan. This inspired nationalism upon many Sudanese people and he managed to inspire armies of up to 40,000 men.

Question 31

What was the early British intervention in Sudan?

Answer 31

In 1883, Hicks led a force of 7000 Egyptian soldiers and all but 300 died at Kashgil after being defeated by a force of 40,000 Mahdist fighters.

Question 32

Why did Britain generally not favour intervention in Sudan?

Answer 32

Britain had no strategic interests (other than protecting Egypt) or economic interests in Sudan. Sudan was largely desert, inhabited with warlike tribes and its main economic basis was the slave trade, which Britain was committed to stamping out. The rise of radical Islam and growing support for the Mahdi made Gladstone even more cautious about the possibility of being drawn into a long and expensive campaign.

Question 33

What were General Gordon’s instructions when he was sent to Sudan in 1884 and what did he do instead?

Answer 33

His instructions from both London and Cairo were to organise the evacuation of Khartoum but instead he announced that he would hold out against the Mahdi until reinforcements were sent.

Question 34

How did General Gordon’s actions and death contribute to the British decision to intervene in Sudan?

Answer 34

The government initially refused to act but press and public opinion of Gordon as a hero meant Gladstone changed his mind and decided to help in Sudan (although relief arrived 2 days too late to save Gordon). After Gordon’s death, he was seen as a martyr and the British public demanded revenge for his death. As a result, Kitchener led the invasion of Sudan in 1897.

Question 35

What happened in 1890?

Answer 35

Britain declared the Nile Valley their ‘sphere of influence’.

Question 36

What happened in 1894?

Answer 36

Sir Edward Grey told the House of Commons that French intervention in the Nile Valley would be viewed as unkind.

Question 37

What were the strategic reasons for the conquest of Sudan 1896-98?

Answer 37

-Salisbury (PM from 1885) believed it was essential for Britain to retain control of Egypt and the Suez Canal, and an unstable Sudan threatened this
-The source of the Nile (in Sudan) was regarded as crucial for reasons of economic and military security (water was needed to irrigate cotton fields)
-The White Nile linked British colonies in North and East Africa
-Gladstone and Baring were worried that the problems in Sudan would destabilise British Egypt.

Question 38

What were the foreign policy reasons for the conquest of Sudan 1896-98?

Answer 38

-After the Italian defeat by Ethiopian forces at Adowa in 1896, there was a desire to reassert European dominance over ‘African barbarism’ and islamic nationalism
-At the time of the ‘scramble for Africa’, Britain’s colonial rival, France, was keen to assert its influence, linking its territories in north and west Africa.

Question 39

How did Kitchener become involved in Sudan?

Answer 39

He was appointed Commander in chief of the Egyptian Army in 1896 with orders to secure the territory on the borders with Egypt.

Question 40

What was Kitchener’s reputation like?

Answer 40

He was an experienced professional soldier and was committed to using the latest technology. He insisted on the use of railways and the most up to date rifles and artillery in the Sudan campaign and also used the Nile and gunboats to support his attack. He had a reputation for being cold and aloof and called a ceasefire at the battle of Khartoum because he didn’t want to waste ammunition.

Question 41

What is some evidence that Kitchener was racist?

Answer 41

He showed little mercy to the wounded and captured enemy soldiers after Omdurman. After seizing Khartoum, he desecrated the Mahdi’s tomb. In contrast, he negotiated carefully with the French leader Marchand at Fashoda, reaching a peaceful compromise over the control of the fort.

Question 42

What was the result of the Battle of Omdurman 1898?

Answer 42

This battle saw the destruction of Mahdist forces using Maxim guns. 10,000 Sudanese people died, 13,000 were taken prisoner and 5000 were wounded. Only 47 British died and 382 were wounded.

Question 43

What was the significance of the Battle of Omdurman?

Answer 43

The Battle of Omdurman was a decisive victory for the British and allowed them to re-conquer Sudan from the Mahdists who had killed General Gordon in 1885. This meant they could also safeguard the Suez Canal and ensure the region against the threat of French occupation.

Question 44

How did superior British weaponry contribute to British victory at the Battle of Omdurman?

Answer 44

Kitchener’s army of around 25,000 was heavily outnumbered but had at its disposal 50 pieces of artillery, 10 gunboats, 5 auxiliary steamers on the Nile and 40 Maxim guns, each capable of firing 600 rounds a minute.

Question 45

How did infrastructure and troops contribute to British victory at the Battle of Omdurman?

Answer 45

Kitchener had spent over 2 years training his troops and building up extensive railway and steamship supply lines with a view of attacking the Mahdist state to the south.

Question 46

How did the weakness of Mahdist forces contribute to British victory at the Battle of Omdurman?

Answer 46

Their army consisted of 60,000 tribesmen (untrained volunteers), armed with spears and swords. They captured piece of artillery and machine guns but didn’t have any appropriate ammunition. Also they lacked good strategy and were uncoordinated.

Question 47

What happened at Fashoda in 1898?

Answer 47

Two armed forces of the British and French met where their interests intersected at Fashoda. There was a tiny French force of 120 men under Major Marchand and Kitchener’s 1500 strong force, accompanied by 5 gunboats. Both sides were restrained and agreed to refer the matter to London and Paris and a bizarre party took place between them, with whiskey, soda and champagne.

Question 48

How were tensions between Britain and France resolved after Fashoda?

Answer 48

France dropped their claim to the Fashoda and Marchand left the fort. This was because the British navy was too powerful and the Dreyfus Affair meant France was too busy dealing with internal issues. In March 1899, the Anglo-French Convention of 1898 was signed and it was agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence. This ended colonial disputes between France and Britain and laid the basis for the Entente Cordiale in 1904.